warning and thereby destroy the lives of more Americans, the Government of the United States would hold the German Government responsible for the act. But this protest did not cause Germany to desist. Her submarines continued to sink merchant vessels without warning, and more American lives were lost. Accordingly, in April, 1916, President Wilson sent an ultimatum to Germany on the subject of submarine warfare. He demanded of the German Government that it order the commanders of its submarines to desist from the sinking of merchantmen without first providing for the safety of persons on board, and declared that if Germany should fail to do this diplomatic relations between the German Government and the Government of the United States would be severed. Upon receiving this ultimatum Germany yielded and promised to conduct her submarine warfare in accordance with the established rules of international law, but at the same time made the statement that if in the future the other belligerent nations should fail in their observance of the rules of international law she would then be facing a new situation in which she must reserve for herself complete liberty of decision. President Wilson accepted the declaration of the German Government, but made it clear that his demand for the observance of American rights upon the sea would not in the slightest degree be contingent upon the action of any other government. "Responsibility," he said, "in such matters is single, not joint; absolute, not relative." While the President was wrestling with the problems growing out of the war, several important federal statutes were enacted. The Federal-Aid Road Act, carrying an appropriation of $75,000,000, to be expended over a five-year period in the construction of highways in the several States, was passed (1916) with the view of lending the assistance of the National Government to the good-roads movement, which was carried forward rapidly after the appearance of the automobile (p. 560). The Rural Credits Bill, enacted in 1916, provides for a system of federal land banks at which farmers who own land may borrow money when they need it for certain purposes con The Federal Aid Road Act The Credits The Eight- Act nected with the occupation of farming. At these land banks farmers may borrow money upon easy terms, and pay off the debt, both principal and interest, in fixed small sums. The Federal Eight-Hour Act passed in 1916 provides for a standard eight-hour working day for employees on interstate railroads, provided such employees are actually engaged in any capacity in the operations of trains. When the employees are of necessity obliged to work for more than eight hours their pay for overtime must be calculated on an eight-hour basis. This law was hurried through Congress in the summer of 1916 with whip and spur in order to avert a strike that threatened to tie up virtually every railroad in the country and bring calamity to the entire nation. Loud and angry protests followed the passage of the Eight-Hour Law, and the dissatisfaction with it was wide-spread. But after the measure was adjudged by the Supreme Court of the United States to be constitutional the opposition to it gradually subsided. As a matter of fact, Congress in passing the law was merely yielding The Board to the force of an eight-hour movement which at the time was sweeping over the country and affecting almost every industry. An act of 1916 created a Shipping Board, which was charged with the duty of encouraging and developing a merchant ma- Shipping rine. During the Civil War so many of our trading vessels had been swept from the seas that by the time the struggle was over our merchant fleet was virtually gone. For nearly fifty years we depended upon foreign ships to carry abroad the products of our factories and fields. Under the act of 1916 it was made the duty of the board to build, buy, or lease ships suitable for the ocean trade, to enforce reasonable maximum rates among water carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and to correct unjust discriminations in rates among such carriers engaged in foreign trade. The Shipping Board thus was given a place in the federal system on a footing with the Interstate Commerce Commission. Defense But more significant than any of the acts mentioned above was the law providing for a more efficient national defense. Responding to the demand for greater preparedness President National Wilson urged upon Congress the necessity of raising an army Act and navy much larger than the country had ever had in times of peace. Congress concurred fully in the views of the President and went far beyond his recommendations. In June, 1916, it passed a National Defense Act, which provided for raising the regular army to a peace strength of 208,000 men and 11,000 officers, and the National Guard to 440,000 men and 17,000 officers, thus making the total peace strength about 650,000 men and 28,000 officers, an army vastly larger than America ever dreamed of having in times of peace. Moreover, appropriations were made for increasing the navy to a size which at the time seemed dazzling in its bigness. Presi Election of While these far-reaching measures of preparedness were The before Congress a Presidential election was drawing near. dential In this campaign the subject that was uppermost in the public mind was the war, and the topic around which most of the discussion revolved was Wilson's management of foreign affairs, the Republicans criticizing his policy and the Democrats de 1916 A Close Election fending it. At the Democratic convention Wilson was renominated by acclamation. Roosevelt was nominated by the Progressives, but he declined to run. A contest by the Progressives would have been useless. After the Great War had quenched the spirit of the progressive movement (p. 573), the Progressive party, which drew its life from that movement, began rapidly to lose strength; and by 1916, although it still had a shell of an organization, its heart was gone. The Progressives hoped that the Republicans would indorse the candidacy of Roosevelt, but in this they were disappointed. The Republican nomination was given to Charles E. Hughes, former governor of New York and at the time the convention met an associate justice of the Supreme Court. During the campaign the Republicans bitterly assailed Wilson's course in respect to Mexico and denounced his management of the affairs relating to the Great War, yet they did not make it clear that if they had been in power they would have pursued a course substantially different. On the vital question of neutrality both candidates were silent: Hughes gave no indication that he was in favor of abandoning the policy of neutrality, nor did Wilson indicate that if reëlected he would continue to adhere to that policy. But the neutral way having proved to be the way of peace, the Democrats did not hesitate to use the slogan, "He kept us out of war." The contest was so close that for several days the result of the balloting was in doubt. In Minnesota and California the margin was extremely narrow. Minnesota went for Hughes by an official plurality of only 396, but California by a vote almost as close went into the Democratic column and decided the contest. Wilson received 274 electoral votes and Hughes 257. The popular vote was: Wilson, 9,128,837; Hughes, 8,536,380. The popular vote of the Socialist candidate, Allan L. Benson of New York, was 590,415. AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR In December, 1916, President Wilson, in the hope that he might secure from the countries at war a definite statement of Proposals the objects for which they were fighting, appealed to them Peace to express their views as to the terms upon which the war might be brought to an end. The results of this appeal were disappointing: the responses of the belligerents indicated that they were in no temper for considering the subject of peace. France and Great Britain were for a "knock-out blow," while Germany was thinking of peace only in the terms of a victor. At this time it was the President's belief that there should be peace without victory. "Victory," he said, "would mean peace forced upon the loser, a victor's terms imposed upon the vanquished. It would be accepted in humiliation under duress at an intolerable sacrifice, and would leave a sting, a resentment, a bitter memory upon which terms of peace would rest, not permanently, but only as upon quicksand." Far from bringing about peace, the President's proposals seemed to stir both sides to fresh exertions. On January 31, the German Government announced that a wide area of waters surrounding the British Islands would be regarded as a barred zone, within which submarines would sink merchantmen, belligerent as well as neutral, except that one American ship would be allowed to pass through the zone each week provided that it followed a designated narrow lane, that it was marked with broad red and white stripes, and that it carried no contraband, This announcement was a stunning blow to the President's cherished policy of neutrality. He promptly broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and sent the German ambassador out of the country. Germany in accordance with her threat renewed the submarine warfare, and merchantman after merchantman went down, with the result that commerce suffered greater disasters than at any time since the war began. Germany Resumes her Sub marine Warfare Ship When two American vessels had been sunk and American The lives had been lost, Wilson went before Congress (February Armed 26) and asked for authority to use armed vessels to protect Bill American rights. "I request," he said, "that you will authorize me to supply the merchant ships with defensive arms, should that become necessary, and with the means of using them and to employ any other instrumentalities or methods that may be necessary and adequate to protect our ships and our people in |