crops of trees. Every inducement should, therefore, be offered by the State to encourage permanent investments in forest property. In the first place, the State should provide an adequate protection against fire; and, in the second place, should reduce, or remit, taxes on young forest growth.

The maintenance of an efficient fire service involves a large annual expenditure of money, but the amount is trifling compared to the benefit which would result to the State. A striking illus

tration of the effect of forest fires is found in southern New Jersey. Sections which at one time contained thriving communities engaged in the lumber business, have become nearly depopulated, and the only inhabitants are a shiftless class of people, locally known as "pine rats," who live by picking huckleberries and stealing timber. Forest fires run over this country every year or two, and there is no inducement whatever for the investment of capital in forest land. The expenditure by the State of only one cent an acre per annum would adequately protect this entire section against fire.

The protection of forests against fire is necessary to ensure a future supply of timber, even if the owners do not practice conservative cutting If the land is not burned over, a new growth will quickly spring up, although it will not be equal in density and quality to tha. which could be produced under careful forest management.

If cur forest lands were managed according to the methods of forestry, it is probable that even the present demand for wood and timber could be supplied from our own resources for an indefinite period. We cannot expect, however, to bring about the careful management of all of our forests for a long time.

With the increase in population, the present per capita consumption of wood and timber will necessarily fall off. As wood and timber become scarcer and more valuable, substitutes of some sort will come into use. Stone and steel will be used for construction, less wood will be used for fuel, paper may be made from the fibres of plants which can be raised on short rotations, and metal or some other material, will be employed for railroad ties and telegraph poles. It is the aim of American foresters to

conserve the present supply, and to bring all forest lands into a productive condition to meet the requirements of future generations.

Forestry is developing with great rapidity in this country. The work has already become so extensive that the few trained American foresters are unable to meet the demands upon them. The United States government is now expending between five and six hundred thousand dollars a year in forest work, and there are in the entire government employ less than twenty well trained foresters. The forest work of the government is, therefore, seriously handicapped by the lack of men who have had thorough practical training and experience. In a number of instances private owners have had to give up the practice of forestry on their lands because the proper men could not be found to do the work. The United States owns about fifty million acres of forest lands in the Philippine Islands. The Director of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry was obliged to come to the United States to secure foresters to assist him in the organization of practical work on this area, and had great difficulty in finding trained men. The Hawaiian government and the planters in the islands stand ready to begin practical forestry as soon as competent foresters can be found. To supply the demand for foresters, several forest schools have already been established in the United States.

In this country men of high intelligence and thorough equipment are needed to carry on the scientific work on which American forestry must ultimately be based, to practically apply the principles thus developed in the management of forest lands, to be leaders in the administration of federal and State forests, and to bring the people throughout the country to a clear understanding of the usefulness and profitableness of forestry.

Yale University.

HENRY S. GRAVES.

A

THE MACHINISTS' STRIKE, 1901.

NEW epoch in the controversies between labor and capital seemed to have been reached when on May 18, 1900, a national agreement was effected between the National Trades Association, representing the employers, and the International Association of Machinists, representing the men. This compact, known as the New York agreement, defined a machinist, fixed the rate of pay for overtime, the number of apprentices, employment and hours, and finally arranged for arbitrating all matters in dispute and dispensing with strikes and lockouts. In describing this agreement a year ago the writer took a very optimistic view of the future of organization and the success of collective bargaining. Within less than a year, however, from the time of framing this admirable arrangement it has been deliberately broken by one party, and subsequently declared null and void by the other. It seems worth while, therefore, to make a further study of this very interesting chapter in the history of trades unionism, and try to draw some conclusions as to the methods and future of wage bargaining.

The New York agreement had provided for the gradual reduction of hours by the following clause:

"Fifty-seven hours shall constitute a week's work from and after six months from the date of the final adoption of a joint agreement, and fifty-four hours shall constitute a week's work from and after twelve months from the date of the final adoption of a joint agreement. The hours to be divided as will best suit the convenience of the employer.'

According to this, the nine and one-half hour day was to be inaugurated in all shops of members of the National Metal Trades Association on November 29, 1900, and the nine-hour day on May 29, 1901. Just previous to the former date a joint meeting of the executive officers of the two associations was held in New York City, at which their belief in arbitration was reiterated and In the YALE REVIEW, November, 1900, p. 302.

arrangements made for carrying out the provisions of the agreement with regard to the shorter working day. At the appointed time the nine and one-half hour day was introduced with but little friction in most of the shops, while many of them had already put it in force. At this meeting, on November 16, a joint resolution was passed which seemed to completely eliminate all fear of strikes and substitute arbitration therefor. It is important as indicating the attitude of both associations at this time, and is therefore given in full. The official organ of the machinists' union, when printing it, added this note in heavy type: "Now remember that this is the only way of adjusting grievances that may exist in National Metal Trade Association shops. Don't deviate in the slightest particular from the above formula, but follow it in letter and spirit." The resolution follows:

RESOLUTION.

Copy of resolution adopted by the Administrative Council of the National Metal Trades Association and the Officers and Board of Trustees of the International Association of Machinists, in joint session at the Murray Hill Hotel, New York City, November 16th, 1900:

WHEREAS, In the joint agreement adopted by the Administrative Council of the National Metal Trades Association and the International Association of Machinists, it was agreed that all pending disputes, and disputes hereafter to arise between members of the respective organizations—that is, between an employer and his employé or employees-should be settled by arbitration, and,

WHEREAS, It was further agreed that, pending such arbitration, no strike or lockout should occur.

Be it resolved, That for the purpose of providing means by which the employer or employé may derive the benefits of this agreement, the following methods shall be pursued:

When a dispute shall arise between an employer and his employé or employees, every reasonable effort shall be made by the said parties to effect a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulty; and in case such difficulty cannot be settled between the employer and his employé or employees it shall be referred, on the part of the member of the National Metal Trades Association, to the

'Monthly Journal, I. A. of M., March, 1901, p. 135. Cf. ibid., Jan., 1901,

P. 3.

chairman of the district in which he is located; and by the employé or employees, to such representative as he or they may select, who shall by all means in his or their power endeavor to adjust the difficulty to the satisfaction of both parties.

Should this committee fail to make such adjustment, then either party shall have the right to ask for a conference between the presidents of the two associations or their representatives. In the event of their being unable to adjust the differences satisfactorily, then it shall be referred to arbitration, as provided in the agreement of May 18th, 1900. The findings of this arbitration, by a majority vote, shall be considered as final as regards the case at issue.

Pending adjudication by arbitration there shall be no cessation of work at the instance or either party to the dispute.

During the winter the machinists started a general movement for the nine-hour day throughout the trade. As they had secured this concession from the members of the National Metal Trades Association, who comprised perhaps 25 per cent. of the employing machinists of the country, it seemed a favorable opportunity to force the independent employers to grant the shorter day also. As the agitation progressed there was coupled with this demand, another for an increase in wages. The New York agreement had been silent on this subject, and doubt arose as to how the clause relating to hours should be interpreted. Correspondence on this question continued through the spring between Mr. James O'Connell, president of the Machinists' union, and Mr. H. F. Devens, secretary of the employers' association. Finally, on April 16, the latter organization agreed to appoint an arbitration committee to meet a similar committee of union men, who should together interpret the disputed clauses of the agreement. To this Mr. O'Connell replied, in a letter of April 22, that inasmuch as the annual meeting of the International Association of Machinists would not occur until June 3, he was "of the opinion at this time that a conference would not be entirely satisfactory until after that date." He then concluded his letter with the following very specific statement of his plans:

"You are aware, of course, that we are making an effort to inaugurate the nine-hour day on May 20th, throughout the United States; also to bring about an increase of wages sufficient to