time politicians habitually resorted to such insolent and vulgar means as have never been surpassed, and since the chief offenders were editors, largely men foreign by birth or recent descent, it was in an endeavor to suppress exasperating libels that these laws were enacted. Further, these laws have become associated with the name of John Adams, for the reason that he, mistaking a popular feeling against France for a reaction against republicanism in the United States, advocated a series of measures which subsequently proved disastrous to himself and his party, and the chief of these was the enactment of the laws in question.

As many of the Republican editors and local leaders were aliens, this law practically put that whole party into the power of a President elected by their opponents, and aroused, in consequence, its vigorous opposition. Jefferson and Madison, then foremost in that party, claimed, in this issue between individual rights and national power, that aliens were, according to the constitution's reservation of powers to the states, within the state's jurisdiction, and that criminal libel was not among the crimes constitutionally specified. to be provided for by Congress. Further, they asserted that Amendment I forbade Congress to pass any law restricting freedom of speech or of the press. Doubting the impartiality of the Federal judges, were they to attempt legal procedure, the Republican leaders determined to intrench the party in the state legislatures, while the Federal party, until then enjoying the height of popularity, having become responsible for these odious laws, passed into rapid and permanent decline.

The legislatures of Virginia and of Kentucky simultaneously passed the memorable "resolutions of 1798." These, formulated by Jefferson, asserted the alien and sedition laws to be null and void, as being beyond the powers delegated to Congress, asserted the sufficiency of the state, and perilously suggested secession. The laws were never executed, and by their own stipulation expired in 1801, the same year in which Thomas Jefferson, the Republican candidate, was elected President. Their passage, which is universally regarded as a grave political blunder, dates the downfall of the Federal party.

ALIENATION is the transfer of an estate from one person to another, whether effected by sale, gift or other means, where the transmission of the estate occurs by mutual consent of the parties. It is particularly applied to a transfer of real estate by deed. Any conveyance of an interest less than the absolute title of the party making the conveyance is not an alienation; for the term has a technical meaning, and refers to a transfer of an entire interest.

ALIMA, an African river tributary to the Congo, rises in the neighborhood of the Ogowe Springs and flows west. Its course was traced by Balloy in 1878, and De Brazza founded two stations on its banks. It is navigable for steamers for some distance.

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See DIGESTIve Or

ALIMENTARY CANAL. GANS, Vol. VII, pp. 221-229. ALIMONY is an allowance to a woman, paid by her husband for her maintenance while living separate from him. Alimony is generally made by order of court, during the pendency of proceedings for divorce, or after the granting of divorce. Alimony pendente lite is that paid during the pendency of a suit for divorce. Permanent alimony is that paid after the termination of the suit, during the joint lives of the parties. The amount of alimony allowed depends largely upon the financial condition of the parties, and is usually fixed at about one third of their income. Alimony does not mean a particular sum of money, or an interest in the estate of the husband, but is a series of payments made for the wife's maintenance. In some states a statutory allowance of a gross sum is permitted to be made in lieu of alimony. See ALIMONY, Vol. I, p. 576. ALISMACEÆ, a small family of monocotyledonous plants, containing about ten widely distributed genera of herbaceous plants, usually growing in water, or floating.

ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD, JR., English general, was born at Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1826. He was educated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and entered the military service in 1846. His father died in 1867, and he assumed the baronetcy, having at that time the rank of colonel; served in the Crimea at the siege and fall of Sebastopol; in India, during the Mutiny, as military secretary on the staff of Lord Clyde; and as second in command upon the Ashanti expedition of 1873. He had lost an arm at the relief of Lucknow, served with honorable distinction in the Egyptian operations of 1882, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in November of that year; was placed in command of the Egyptian army of occupation. He attained his present rank on the 20th of February, 1889. He has published an authoritative treatise, On Army Organization.

ALIWAL, a Punjab village in northwestern India, is on the left bank of the Sutlej. Here, June 28, 1846, Sir Henry Smith, with 12,000 British troops, defeated Sikh forces of double that number.

ALKALIMETRY, the process of determining the strength of alkaline mixtures, such as commercial solutions of sodium or potassium carbonate. The process is based upon the fact that, given an amount of alkali, the amount of acid which it can saturate or neutralize may be determined, or vice versa. Sulphuric acid is run from a burette into a given quantity of the solution to be tested, until the alkali is neutralized. The amount of acid necessary to neutralize is proportional to the amount of alkali contained in the solution undergoing test. The apparatus used has been called an alkalimeter. A similar process is used by mint assayers to determine the strength of a solution of silver. This process of analysis has given rise to a new department of analytical chemistry, designated volumetric analysis.

of the Sikh army, which he organized and trained in the European modes of warfare. On his return to Paris he was received with distinction, and in 1833 was made chargé d'affaires in Lahore. He subsequently distinguished himself in the battles of Runjeet Singh with the Afghans.

ALLATIUS, LEO, Italian writer, was born on the island of Scio in 1586, and died at Rome in 1669. His parents were Greeks. He appeared

In

ALLAN, SIR HUGH, born in Scotland, Sept. 29, 1810; died in Edinburgh, Dec. 8, 1882. 1824 he came to Canada, engaged in the shipping business, and established the Allan line of ocean steamers. He was a director of several banks and public companies, and was knighted in 1871; became well known in Canadian politics on account of his connection with the Canadian Pacific railway scandal.

ALLAN, JOHN, American soldier, born at the Castle of Edinburgh, Scotland, Jan. 13, 1746. He emigrated to Nova Scotia in 1749, and was brought up as a farmer. In 1770 he went into politics, occupied several local offices, and gained influence with the Indians. In 1777 Congress gave him a colonel's commission, and with his Indians he protected the exposed line of the northeastern frontier. The authorities of Nova Scotia offered a price for his arrest; his house was burned, and his wife thrown into prison. In compensation for the losses he had sustained the Massachusetts government gave him 22,000 acres of land, and Congress granted him 2,000 acres in Ohio. He died in Lubec, Maine, Feb. 7, 1805..

ALLAN-KARDEC, HIPPOLYTE LÉON DENIZARD, French author and spiritualist, was born in Lyons, Oct. 3, 1803, and died in Paris, April 1, 1869. He was the leader of French spiritualists, and wrote The Book of Mediums; The Book of Spirits; and The Imitation of the Gospels According to Spiritualism.

ALLANTOIS, one of the foetal membranes which surround the embryos of reptiles, birds and mammals. It is a saclike diverticulum which grows ventrally from the posterior end of the alimentary canal and out into the space between inner and outer amniotic folds. It is essentially It is essentially a respiratory structure. In most mammals the chorion, formed by fusion of allantois and outer amniotic fold, comes into close relation with uterine blood-vessels, forming a "placenta." See MAMMALIA, Vol. XV, p. 369.

ALLARD, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French general, was born at Var in 1785, and died in India, Jan. 23, 1839. In 1815 he was adjutant to Marshal Brune, after whose assassination at the time of the Restoration he quitted France. He entered the service of Abbas-Mirza of Persia, and went to Lahore in 1820. He was made generalissimo

ALLATOONA, Bartow County, northwestern Georgia, is a village on the Western and Atlantic railroad, 40 miles from Atlanta. In General Sherman's pursuit of General Johnston, May, 1864, the latter made a stand at Allatoona Pass, in the vicinity, and fought until his flank had been turned. Population 1880, 778; 1890, 706.

ALLBUTT, THOMAS CLIFFORD, English physician, was born at Dewsbury in 1836, son of the Rev. Thomas Allbutt; was educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and went from there into St. George's Hospital, and, later, into the hospitals of Paris. He built up a very large practice in Yorkshire; retired from it in 1889, and in 1892 was appointed regius professor of physic in the University of Cambridge; has contributed largely to medical literature, and has recently published the System of Medicine (1895).

ALLEGAN, capital of Allegan County, southwestern Michigan, is situated on the Kalamazoo River, 160 miles W. of Detroit, and 33 miles by rail S. of Grand Rapids; has a considerable lumber trade. Population 1880, 2,305; 1890, 2,669.

ALLEGHANY OR ALLEGANY, a manufacturing town in Cattaraugus County, New York, is 55 miles S. of Buffalo and connected with it by rail. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic college and Franciscan convent. Population 1880, 4,044; 1890, 3,611.

ALLEGHANY SPRING, a post village of southwestern Virginia, in Montgomery County, about 80 miles W. of Lynchburg, and three miles from Alleghany Station. It is noted for its springs of saline water, and is much frequented as a summer resort. Population of district in 1890, 3,787.

ALLEGHENY OR ALLEGHANY, an important residence and manufacturing city of western Pennsylvania, capital of Allegheny County, is situated on the Allegheny River, opposite Pittsburg, with which it is connected by nine bridges. It is the terminus of important railway lines, and has numerous public institutions of importance, such as the Western University of Pennsylvania, Western (Presbyterian) Theological Seminary, and Allegheny Observatory. It contains 3 theological schools, 3 national banks, 80 churches, a college for colored persons, 2 public libraries, several hospitals and charitable institutions, and a city park of 100 acres. It has numerous factories, including rolling-mills for iron, woolen and cotton

1779 he published a Narrative of his treatment while a British prisoner. In 1777 Vermont had declared its independence and sought to join the other colonies on equal terms. This proposition was opposed by New York. Allen, on obtaining his freedom, was appointed major-general of the Vermont militia, and sent as an agent to Congress to secure the admission of Vermont to the confederation.

ALLEN, FREDERICK DE FORREST, American classical scholar, was born at Oberlin, Ohio, 1844. After his graduation from Oberlin College (1863), he studied at the University of Leipsic, and in 1866 became a professor at the University of Tennessee. After holding professorships at the University of Cincinnati and at Yale, he became, in 1880, professor of classical philology at Harvard. He revised Hadley's Greek Grammar in 1884, and has edited a number of classical writings. He died Aug. 4, 1897.

ALLEN, GEORGE, American scholar, was born at Milton, Vermont, Dec. 17, 1808; died at Worcester, Massachusetts, May 28, 1876. He was professor of Greek at the University of Pennsylvania from 1845 until his death; published, in 1860, a Life of Philidor.

ALLEN, HENRY, a religious enthusiast, and founder of the Nova Scotian sect, "Allenites," was born at Newport, Rhode Island, June 14, 1748; died at Northampton, New Hampshire, Feb. 2, 1784. He preached that Adam and Eve, in their state of innocence, were non-corporeal, and that all human beings in spiritual form participated in the original transgression. He denied the resurrection of the body.

ALLEN, HARRISON, American physician, born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 17, 1841. He studied medicine, and entered the United States army in 1862 as surgeon, resigning in 1865, after attaining the brevet rank of major. Since then he has been professor of physiology in the University of Pennsylvania, professor of anatomy and surgery in the Philadelphia Dental College, and surgeon of the Philadelphia Hospital; has published Outlines of Comparative Anatomy, and System of Human Anatomy.

ALLEN, HEMAN, American lawyer, born in Poultney, Vermont, Feb. 23, 1779. He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1795, and then studied law; subsequently was sheriff of Chittenden County, Vermont, chief justice of the county court, a member of the legislature, United States marshal for the district of Vermont, and from 1823 to 1827 minister to Chile. He died in Highgate, Vermont, April 9, 1852.

ALLEN, HENRY WATKINS, American soldier and statesman, born in Prince Edward County, Virginia, April 29, 1820. He fought in the Texan war against Mexico, and in the Civil War as a Confederate colonel, always acquitting himself honorably. He was twice elected to the legislature, and in 1864 was made governor of Louisiana. He died in the City of Mexico, April 22, 1866.

ALLEN, HORATIO, American civil engineer,

was born at Schenectady, New York, May 10, 1802; died at Montrose, New Jersey, Dec. 31, 1889. He was graduated at Columbia College in 1823, and went into the service of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company. In 1828 he was sent to England by this company to purchase the first locomotives used in America, and on Aug. 9, 1829, he engineered the Stourbridge Lion in the first locomotive trip made in America. Directly afterward he became connected with the South Carolina railroad, and built the first 100 consecutive miles of railway track ever operated; also built High Bridge over Harlem River, New York City, and was first assistant engineer of the Croton aqueduct.

ALLEN, IRA, American soldier, born in Cornwall, Connecticut, April 21, 1751. He was associated with his brother, Ethan Allen, in the dispute between New Hampshire and New York over the land grants; and when the Revolution broke out he became colonel of the militia, and took part in the battle of Bennington. From 1776 to 1777 he was a member of the Vermont legislature, and later of the constitutional convention of Vermont, the first secretary of the state, then treasurer, and surveyor-general. He was one of the founders of the University of Vermont. While on a trip to France to purchase arms for the state of Vermont he was seized by the English and thrown into prison on a charge of furnishing the Irish rebels with arms, and not until after eight years of litigation in the court of admiralty was he acquitted. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jan. 7, 1814.

ALLEN, JAMES LANE, an American author; born near Lexington, Kentucky, in the heart of the bluegrass region. He was the youngest of a large family, being of Scotch-Irish parentage. His writings have attracted much attention, and are exceptionally bright and interesting. They include Flute and Violin (1891); The Blue Grass Region of Kentucky (1892); John Gray (1893); A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), and its sequel, Aftermath (1896); and A Summer in Arcady (1896).

ALLEN, JOEL ASAPH, American zoologist, was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, July 19, 1838. He studied at Wilbraham Academy, then at the Lawrence Scientific School under Agassiz, and was with him on the expedition to Brazil in 1865. He accompanied scientific exploring parties to Florida and the Rocky Mountains, and was at the head of an expedition sent out by the Northern Pacific railroad in 1873. He became assistant in ornithology at the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Cambridge in 1870, one year later receiving the Humboldt scholarship, and since 1885 has been connected with the American Museum of Natural History at New York; is the author of Monographs of North American Rodentia; History of North American Pinnipeds; and works of a similar nature.

ALLEN, JOHN BEARD, American lawyer and Senator, born at Crawfordsville, Indiana, May 18, 1845. He lived at or near his native town, educating himself as best he could, until the spring of

1864, when he enlisted in the One Hundred and Twenty-eighth Indiana infantry, and served in Tennessee and Alabama until mustered out in 1865. He then removed to Rochester, Minnesota, and entered the office of Judge Wilson as a student at law, subsequently graduating from the law school at Ann Arbor, Michigan. He was admitted to the bar in 1869, and in 1870 removed to Olympia, Washington Territory, and entered upon the practice of his profession. Within a twelvemonth his practice grew to unprecedented dimensions for one so young, and he was regarded as a lawyer of great promise and an orator of unusual force and ability. In 1875 he was appointed United States attorney for Washington Territory, a position which he held for more than 10 years. In 1887, he was elected to Congress, and in 1889 he was chosen to represent the new and vigorous state of Washington in the United States Senate.

He

ALLEN, JOHN M., American Congressman, born in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, July 8, 1847. He received a common-school education up to the time of his enlistment in the Confederate army, in which he served through the war. then studied at the law school of the Cumberland University, and subsequently at the University of Mississippi, being admitted to the bar in 1870. In 1875 he was made district attorney for the first judicial district of Mississippi, retiring four years later. He was elected and served from the Forty-ninth to the Fifty-fourth Congresses, inclusive, as a Democrat.

ALLEN, RICHARD, a Methodist minister, and first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal (U.S.) Church, was ordained by Francis Asbury in 1799; became bishop in 1816, and died in Philadelphia, March 26, 1831.

ALLEN, RICHARD L., writer on agricultural subjects, was born in Hampden County, Massachusetts, 1803, and died at Stockholm, Sweden, Sept. 22, 1869. He became a merchant at Buffalo, New York, and in 1842 established the American Agriculturist, which soon obtained large circulation; wrote Diseases of Domestic Animals; American Farm Book; and works of a similar

nature.

ALLEN, THOMAS, an American artist. He was born in St. Louis, Missouri, 1849. Having studied in the Rhenish provinces, he returned to America and opened a studio in Boston.

He was

an associate of the Academy of Design in New York and a member of the Society of American Artists. His best work is in landscape.

ALLEN, WILLIAM, author and educator, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, Jan. 2, 1784; graduate of Harvard (1802); licensed to the Congregational ministry (1804); succeeded to his father's charge in Pittsfield (1810); president of Dartmouth University (1817-20), and of Bowdoin College (1820-39); retired to Northampton, Massachusetts, where he died, July 16, 1868.

He was

a prolific writer, but his American Biographical and Historical Dictionary was his most noticeable publication and went through several editions. He

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was the author or compiler of several volumes of devout verse.

ALLEN, WILLIAM, an American Democratic Senator from Ohio, was born at Edentown, North Carolina, 1806; studied at Chillicothe Academy, Ohio; was admitted to the bar in 1827. He was an uncle of Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio. At the early age of 24 years he acquired considerable fame by his successful defense of a client charged with murder. with murder. This led, on account of his brilliant pleading, to his election in 1831 to Congress, and as the youngest member of the House. In 1837 he took his seat in the Senate, being also the youngest member of that body. He was re-elected in 1843. In 1848 he refused the offer of the nomination of the Democratic national convention for President because he was pledged to Lewis Cass's interests. He was made governor of Ohio in 1873, and was a candidate again in 1875, but was defeated by R. B. Hayes, afterward President. Mr. Allen was an impetuous, vehement speaker, advocated greenback currency as the basis of the national monetary system, and was noted for the popular sobriquets attached to his name. He died July 11, 1879.

ALLEN, WILLIAM, an English chemist, was born in London, Aug. 29, 1770; appointed a lecturer in chemistry in Guy's Hospital in 1802; elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1807; and was a contributor to Philosophical Transactions. He was also famous as a philanthropist, becoming an active promoter of reformatory and benevolent institutions. As a preacher of the Society of Friends he made numerous visits to the continent of Europe. In 1822 he met the czar of Russia, their interview relating chiefly to school questions, the slave-trade and the independence of Greece. He organized two labor training-schools in 1825 at Lindfield, Sussex. He died at the latter place, Dec. 30, 1843.

ALLEN, WILLIAM, cardinal, was born at Rossall, Lancashire, England, in 1532. He was elected fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, 1550, and, although a Catholic, retained this office until 1560. The following year he sought refuge in Flanders. He received priest's orders at Mechlin, founded the English College at Douay in 1568, and in 1587 was created cardinal, during his fourth visit to Rome. He possessed intellectual and moral gifts of a high order, and as long as he lived was the unrivaled leader of his coreligionists. He died at Rome, Oct. 16, 1594.

ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS, American educator, born in Northboro, Massachusetts, Sept. 5, 1830. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1851, and passed two years of study in Germany and Italy; became instructor in the ancient languages in Antioch College, Ohio, and in 1867 professor of Latin and history in the University of Wisconsin. He published a number of text-books, also a collection of Slave Songs. He died Dec. 9, 1889. ALLEN, WILLIAM HENRY, an American educator, was born in Readfield, near Augusta, Maine, March 27, 1808. He was graduated at Bowdoin College (1833); successively professor of Latin