the impurities in the sugar. The syrup is then filtered through bone-black, another product of the slaughter-house, being made of calcined bones. The inferior qualities of blood are employed in the manufacture of buttons, being pressed into shape by hydraulic machinery. Imitation tortoise-shell articles are also composed largely of blood. Defibrinated blood is now extensively used as a medicine, where the blood lacks the red corpuscles. The blood of an average ox will weigh about 40 pounds, and the amount realized from the sale of blood by the slaughter-houses averages from $35 to $45 per ton. Other workmen in succession cut off the animal's head, skin the legs and cut them off, split and remove the skin, when it is conveyed to another gang, who prepare it for conversion into leather. Others seize the internal portions of the animal, separate the parts which are to go to the different rooms as food, from those which enter into the composition of fertilizers, and those to be converted into oil, thence into margarine or butterine. During these operations water flows in abundance along the floor, composed of gutters and containing numerous apertures. Through these the water, charged with detritus of all sorts, runs into reservoirs, from which the solid parts are taken and mixed with fertilizers, after being first dried and pressed. Previous to the removal of these solids from the vats the water is skimmed, and the fat and particles of meat sold to the manufacturers of soap, candles and axle-grease. The water is then evaporated to preserve whatever else may remain, and the residue mixed with fertilizers, the final asylum of all that cannot be otherwise utilized. The edibility of the stomach in the form of tripe is well known. The bladder is dried and sold to druggists and snuff-makers, while brewers and gold-beaters secure certain of the intestines, which are prepared especially for them. Brewers use one intestine, about seven or eight centimeters in diameter and about forty in length, to line pipes, so as to prevent the beer's contact with the metal. The intestines are glued end to end until sufficient length is secured for the desired purpose. Gold-beaters use the intestine as a receptacle for the sheets of gold already beaten to a film, but when placed between sheets of this parchment-like substance, as it is when dried and prepared, they reduce the gold to a thickness estimated at one ten-millionth of a millimeter. One of the membranes of the large intestine of the ox is used by surgeons in closing wounds and in making plasters. Other uses, as casings for sausage, etc., are well known. The paring of the skin, the ears, a portion of the tail, the feet, the muzzle, the bones that cannot be otherwise employed, such as those of the skull and jaws, the interior of the horns, are all employed for the manufacture of glue and gelatine. The latter is the same product as the former, but more carefully made of selected materials. In using the parts named for the above purpose they are first depilated by the use of lime, which is afterward neutralized by sulphuric acid and the mass separated from impurities by washing. Where bones are employed for the manufacture of gelatine they are first treated with hydrochloric acid. About one third of the osseous substance thus formed

is gelatine, or glue, and more than one half is in the form of phosphates of lime and magnesia, which, for its soluble phosphoric acid, is sold as a fertilizer. There is also made with particular care a form of gelatine used by brewers to clarify beer.

The hair collected in these operations is not of uniform value. That which comes from the interior of the ears is very fine and is plucked out before all else, and after being properly treated is used for making "camel's"-hair pencils, which are sold at a low price and used for a multitude of purposes. The feet, after being freed from the horny covering, serve for the manufacture of a kind of oil used for dressing leather, the horn substance being manufactured into combs, buttons, etc. The horns of the ox serve for a multitude of purposes. They can be made supple, be split into thin plates and pressed in heated molds into divers forms and receive various colors, thus imitating closely the highest priced tortoiseshell. They can also be made into umbrella-handles, knife-handles, tobacco-boxes, goblets, napkinrings, etc. The comparative scarcity of whalebone has called attention to this product, which in a measure replaces it.

For

The different uses of bones are increasing. knife-handles and kindred service they have long been utilized, and, as stated herein, are now made into bone charcoal, fertilizer, glue and gelatine, and different chemical substances.

The hair removed in the process of making glue is burned in a closed vessel, and serves in the manufacture of ammonia, which is used for making artificial ice in breweries, cold-storage warehouses, etc.

Even the undigested food found in the stomach of the ox is utilized, one purpose to which it is put being the manufacture of strawboard. When it is a mixture of hay and Indian corn it is compressed and dried, and then forms a food known by the name of "Texas Nut."

The bile, under the name of ox-gall, is used in painting, in cleaning and in bookbinding. The stomach of the young calf furnishes the rennet used to curdle milk for cheese, and pepsin is also obtained from the same source. The most convenient and abundant source of pepsin, however, is the stomach of the hog, from which the greater part of this medical product, now much used, is obtained.

The by-products of the hog, sheep, calf and other animals are as closely and economically utilized as those of the ox, and absolutely nothing is allowed. to go to waste.

The importance of beef extract as an article of commerce may be realized when it is stated that one firm in Chicago manufactured three hundred thousand pounds of this article in 1895.

Among articles manufactured for medicinal use from the products of animals may be mentioned pancreatin, pepsin, peptone, thyroids, and, as mentioned herein, defibrinated blood and beef extract.

ABBATUCCI, CARLO, OR CHARLES, a French general, son of G. P. Abbatucci; served with distinction in the campaigns of the French army of the Rhine, 1794-96. Born 1771; killed in battle Dec. 2, 1796.

ABBATUCCI, CHARLES a counselor of state un

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of Guienne as a fief of France. The final terms of the treaty were settled in Paris.

ABBE, CLEVELAND, an American meteorologist and astronomer; born in New York City, Dec. 3, 1838. He was graduated at the New York Free Academy; taught mathematics in Trinity Latin School, and then studied astronomy under Brünow, Gould and Struvé. In 1868 he was elected director of the Cincinnati Observatory, and inaugurated a system of daily meteorological reports by telegraph, with weather predictions. Its success led Congress to direct the Secretary of War to provide for taking meteorological observations at military posts, with the design of giving warning of any approach of storms. In 1871 Abbe was appointed meteorologist of the new Weather Bureau at Washington, under A. J. Myer. As it was his duty to prepare "probabilities," Professor Abbe became popularly known as "Old Probabilities," and under his direction the service reached a high degree of efficiency. He has written for numerous periodicals, cyclopædias, and books of reference on astronomical and meteorological subjects.

ABBETT, LEON, governor of New Jersey, was born in Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1836. He removed to New Jersey in early life, and for many years was a member of the New Jersey and New York bars. He early entered politics, and served three terms as a member of the New Jersey legislature, subsequently becoming state senator, and for three years was president of the senate. In 1883, and again in 1889, he was elected governor of New Jersey, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate. In 1893 he was appointed a justice of the New Jersey supreme court by his successor, Governor George T. Werts. Died Dec. 4, 1894.

ABBEVILLE, capital of Henry County, in the southeast part of Alabama, is a precinct and village on a branch of the Yattayabba Creek, and is connected by a branch line with the Alabama Midland railroad. Population of the precinct in 1890, 1,826. ABBEVILLE, capital of Vermilion Parish, Louisiana, is a district and town in the southern part of the state. It is connected by a branch line with New Iberia, on the Southern Pacific railroad, and is also on Vermilion Bayou. It has a few manufactures. Population in 1890, 2,737.

ABBEVILLE COURT HOUSE is the capital of Abbeville County, in the west-northwest part of South Carolina. It is at the junction of the Georgia, Carolina and Northern and the Southern railroads, 107 miles N.W. of Columbia, and has manufactures of cotton-seed oil and fertilizers. Population of the town in 1890, 1,696; of the township, 4,048.

ABBEVILLE TREATIES, so called because of the meeting of Henry III of England and Louis IX

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN, American artist, born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 1, 1852. He studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and later devoted himself to drawing illustrations for books and magazines. In 1875 he took up water-color work, and in 1883 removed to London, where his studio now is. Among his notable pictures are The Stage Office, The Evil Eye, Lady in a Garden, Rose in October, and The Widower. Mr. Abbey is a member of the New York Water-Color Society, of the New York Etching Club, of the Tile Club, and of the London Institute of Water-Colors. In 1896 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy in London. His picture, Richard Duke, of Gloucester, and the Lady Anne, was the success of the year 1896 in the English Royal Academy Exhibition.

ABBEY, HENRY E., an American theatrical manager, was born in Akron, Ohio, in 1848. He commenced his managerial career in 1870, and acted as manager for Patti, Sara Bernhardt, Mrs. Langtry, Sir Henry Irving, and others. He died in New York City, Oct. 17, 1896. ABBEY, RICHARD, an American Methodist clergyman and author; born in Genesee County, New York, Nov. 16, 1805. Removed to Natchez, Miss., 1825, and in 1844 joined the Mississippi conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. He is the author of several religious books, among which are The End of the Apostolic Succession, Creeds for All Men, The Church and the Ministry, and The City of God and the Church-Makers. He was also a frequent contributor to religious papers and reviews.

ABBEYVILLE, capital of Wilcox County, in south-central Georgia, is a town on the Ockmulgee River, at the point where the Georgia and Alabama railroad joins a branch railway to Waycross. It is 130 miles W. of Savannah. Population of township in 1890, 1,332.

ABBITIBBI, a lake, river and trading-station in the northeast of the province of Ontario, Canada, south of James Bay, into which the river empties.

ABBON, THE CROOKED (Lat. Abbo Cernuus), a Norman monk of St. Germain-des-Prés who wrote a Latin poem descriptive of the siege of Paris by the Normans (885-887). Died 923.

ABBOT, BENJAMIN, LL.D., an eminent American educator; born at Andover, Massachusetts, Sept. 17, 1762. Graduated at Harvard in 1788. For half a century he was principal of Phillips Academy at Exeter, New Hampshire, and numbered among his pupils Daniel Webster, Alexander H. Everett. Edward Everett, Lewis Cass, Jared Sparks, George Bancroft, and others. Died Oct. 25, 1849.

ABBOT, EZRA, born in Jackson, Maine, April 28, 1819; died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, March 21, 1884. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy, and afterward at Bowdoin College, where he graduated at the age of 21. For many years he was engaged in

Phillips Exeter Academy, and in Boston and Beverly. He contributed to Worcester's Dictionary, and was prominent among the advocates of the claims of Dr. Jackson as the discoverer of the use of ether as an anæsthetic. Died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, April 7, 1873.

man.

ABBOT, FRANCIS ELLINGWOOD, American philosopher; born in Boston, Massachusetts, Nov. 6, 1836. After graduating at Harvard College in 1859, he studied theology and became a Unitarian clergyIn 1870 he left the ministry, however, and edited The Index, a Boston journal of free thought. He has written much on metaphysical subjects, and has published Scientific Theism and The Way Out of Agnosticism.

ABBOT, HENRY LARCOM, an American military engineer, born at Beverly, Massachusetts, Aug. 13, 1831, and educated at West Point. Before the Civil War he was engaged in the survey of the Pacific railroad and of the Mississippi Delta. He was wounded at the battle of Bull Run, 1861; served in the Virginia peninsular campaign; topographical engineer to Banks' expedition to New Orleans; commanded the siege artillery before Richmond, Va., 1864-65, and at the capture of Fort Fisher; attained the rank of brevet major-general of volunteers. After the war he devoted himself to scientific pursuits. He accompanied the eclipse expedition to Sicily in 1870; wrote on fortifications, river and harbor improvements, hydraulics, gun-foundries and siege artillery; invented a submarine mine system used in the coast defenses of the United States; wrote the article on the MISSISSIPPI RIVER (see Vol. XVI, pp. 518-21) in this ENCYCLOPÆDIA.

ABBOT, JOEL, an American naval commander, was born at Westford, Massachusetts, Jan. 18, 1793. He entered the navy as midshipman, and was signalofficer of the President; was promoted for gallantry in connection with the naval campaign against the British on Lake Champlain; commanded the captured pirate vessel Mariana in 1818, and was promoted commander in 1838. He succeeded Commodore Perry as flag-officer of the expedition to Japan. He rendered efficient service in the conduct of our diplomatic relations with China, where he died, Dec. 14, 1855.

ABBOT, JOEL, M.D., was born at Fairfield, Connecticut, March 17, 1766, and removed to Georgia in 1794, where he engaged in the practice of medicine. He was a member of the Georgia legislature in 1809, and United States Congressman 1816-25. He died at Washington, Georgia, Nov. 19, 1826.

ABBOT, JOSEPH HALE, an American lexicographer and educator, was born at Wilton, New Hampshire,

ABBOT, SAMUEL, an American merchant and philanthropist; born at Andover, Massachusetts, Feb. 25, 1732. He was one of the founders of the Andover Theological Seminary, to which he gave twenty thousand dollars during his lifetime, and one hundred thousand dollars at his death. Died April 12,

1812.

ABBOT OF MISRULE, a name given in Scotland during the middle ages to the master of revels. Also called the "Abbot of Unreason" and the "Abbot of Fools."

ABBOTT, AUSTIN, an American lawyer and legal writer, born in Boston, Dec. 18, 1831, the son of Jacob Abbott. He was appointed dean of the faculty of law of the University of the City of New York in 1891, and is the author of several legal compilations. Died in New York, April 19, 1896.

ABBOTT, BENJAMIN, an American Methodist clergyman, born on Long Island, New York, in 1732. In his early youth he was apprenticed to a hatter in Philadelphia, where he led a riotous existence. At the age 33 he came under the influence of a Methodist preacher, and soon after himself began to preach. Suspected, as the Methodists were, of disloyalty, he on one occasion preached to one hundred soldiers who had assembled to injure him, and so effectively as to persuade them to disperse. He became an itinerant preacher and held services in New York, New Jersey, and Maryland. He died in Salem, New Jersey, Aug. 14, 1796.

ABBOTT, BENJAMIN VAUGHAN, an American lawyer and writer; born in Boston, June 4, 1830, the son of Jacob Abbott and the brother of Austin and Lyman Abbott. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York, and after several years of study began the practice of law in New York. He soon turned his attention to editing and compiling law reports and published several original. treatises. In 1870 to 1873 he was a member of a commission of three appointed to revise the United States statutes. Among his works are Digest of New York Statutes (1863; new ed. 1876); Digest of U. S. Court Reports and Acts of Congress (1875); Law Dictionary (1879); National Digest (1884); and Patent Laws of all Nations (1886), besides working with Austin on law text-books. He died in Brooklyn, Feb. 17, 1890.

ABBOTT, CHARLES, LORD Tenterden, an eminent English jurist; born at Canterbury, Oct. 7, 1762, of humble parents. In 1802 he published a treatise on the law relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen. In 1816 he became one of the justices of the court of common pleas. In 1818 he was knighted and beHe was came chief justice of the king's bench. raised to the peerage in 1827, and became one of the most influential members of the House of Lords. Died Nov. 4, 1832.

ABBOTT, CHARLES STUART AUBREY, THIRD LORD

TENTERDEN, an English diplomatist; born in London, Dec. 26, 1834. After considerable service in the foreign office, he acted as secretary to the joint high commission at Washington in relation to the Alabama claims in 1871, and subsequently was the general agent of Great Britain in the conference on the claims. Lord Tenterden was appointed permanent under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1873, and in 1878 was one of the royal commissioners at the Paris Exhibition. He died Sept. 22, 1882.

ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT, D.D., theologian and philologist, was born in London in 1838. After a brilliant career at St. John's, Cambridge, he obtained a fellowship, was master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at Clifton College, and was for 24 years head master of the City of London School, retiring in 1889 on a pension. He was select preacher at both universities, and his sermons gave him a place in the front rank of the more liberal theologians within the English Church. His view of Christianity he stated in Through Nature to Christ (1877). He was the author of Philochristus and Onesimus, two romances of the first age of the church, and of The Kernel and the Husk (1877), an amplification of the view of Christianity contained in the preceding. In 1884 he published, in conjunction with W. J. Rushbrooke, The Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels, and he wrote the article on the GOSPELS, in this ENCYCLOPEDIA, Vol. X, pp. 789-843. His well-known Shakespearean Grammar (1869) has been followed by several works of great practical value on the teaching of English. Of more general interest are his Bacon and Essex (1877) and Francis Bacon (1885). Among his later works are Philomythus (1891), and The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman (1892).

ABBOTT, EMMA, an American operatic singer, born in Chicago, Illinois, Dec. 9, 1849. At an early age she exhibited some musical talent, and while singing at a parlor entertainment in Toledo, Ohio, attracted the notice of Clara Louise Kellogg, who took her to New York to complete her musical training. In 1872 she was sent abroad by the congregation of the Rev. Dr. Chapin's church, studied in Paris and Milan, and was befriended by the Baroness Solomon de Rothschild. In Paris she was secretly married to Eugene Wetherell. Her first appearance was in The Daughter of the Regiment, produced in London; then a refusal to appear in La Traviata caused some sensation and met with the approval of her American friends. From her first appearance her operatic success was assured and unbroken. She survived her husband two years, and died in Salt Lake City, Jan. 5, 1891.

ABBOTT, GORHAM DUMMER, an American educator; born at Hallowell, Maine, Sept. 3, 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin College and studied theology at Andover; was ordained as a Congregational minister and became a teacher in New York city. He established and conducted two educational institutions for women, and was much occupied with biblical research. He is the author of Nathan Dickerman; Mexico and the United States; and other works. Died at South Natick, Massachusetts, July 31, 1874.

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ABBOTT, JACOB, was born at Hallowell, Maine, Nov. 14, 1803; was professor of mathematics in Amherst College from 1825 till 1829, and was subsequently a Congregational pastor. In 1838 he began writing simple and popular works, mainly for the young, by which his name was widely known. His most popular work is The Young Christian, the "memorial edition" of which contains a life by his son. He published over 200 volumes, amongst which are The Franconia Stories, 10 vols.; Histories for the Young, 19 vols.; Marco Paul's Adventures, 6 vols.; Harper's Story Books, 36 vols.; The Rollo Books, 36 vols.; Science for the Young, 4 vols.; American Histories for Youth, 8 vols. He died at Farmington, Maine, Oct. 31, 1879.

ABBOTT, JOHN JOSEPH CALDWELL, Canadian statesman, born at St. Andrews, Argenteuil County, Canada East, March 12, 1821. He was educated at St. Andrews and McGill colleges, was admitted to the bar in 1847, and in 1859 he was elected as representative to the Canadian Assembly. He was knighted and served as premier of the Dominion, 1891-92. Died Oct. 30, 1893.

ABBOTT, JOHN STEPHENS CABOT, American historian, born at Brunswick, Maine, Sept. 18, 1805. In 1825 he was graduated at Bowdoin College, studied theology, and continued his pastoral labors until 1844, when he retired to devote himself to literature. His principal works are Kings and Queens, or Life in the Palace; The French Revolution of 1789; The History of Napoleon Bonaparte; Napoleon at St. Helena; The History of Napoleon III; A History of the Civil War in America; Romance of Spanish History; The History of Frederick the Second, called Frederick the Great; histories of Austria, Russia, Spain and Italy; Lives of the Presidents; and Practical Christianity. Many of his works have been translated into foreign languages. He died at Fair Haven, Connecticut, June 17, 1877.

ABBOTT, JOSIAH GARDNER, an American jurist and politician, born at Chelmsford, Massachusetts, Nov. 1, 1815; judge of the superior court for Suffolk County, 1855-59; member of Congress, 1875-77. Died at Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts, June 2, 1891.

ABBOTT, LYMAN, D.D., American clergyman; born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, Dec. 18, 1835, son of Jacob Abbott; graduated at the University of the City of New York; studied law; ordained pastor of Congregational church,

Terre Haute, Ind.; editor of Illustrated Christian Weekly, 1871-76, and then of The Christian Union (now The Outlook); succeeded Mr. Beecher, of whom he wrote a Life (1883), as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, 1888; wrote commentaries on the first six books of the New Testament; assisted on Conant's Dictionary of Religious Knowledge; and published The Evolution of Christianity (1892).

LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D.