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He com

German opera at Niblo's Theater in 1856. posed several concert pieces, a symphony and an opera, but is best known as a conductor.

BERGMANN, ERNST VON, Surgeon; born in Riga, Dec. 16, 1836; studied in Berlin, Vienna and Dorpat; in the wars of 1866 and 1870 he served in the Baden and Prussian armies; from 1878 to 1882 was professor of surgery in the University of Würzburg; since 1882 has been professor of surgery at the University of Berlin. Das Putride Gift, Ueber FetDas Putride Gift, Ueber Fettembolie, and Das Pepsin are among his best works. BERGMANN, FREDERICK WILLIAM, a German linguist; born in Strasburg, Feb. 9, 1812; died there, Nov. 14, 1887. In connection with theology he studied philology, in his native city. He continued his linguistic studies in Göttingen, Berlin and Paris, and in 1838 he became professor of foreign literature in the University of Strasburg. He has written numerous important works on the Semitic and other languages.

BERGMEHL OR MOUNTAIN-FLOUR, a deposit of white or cream-colored powder of extreme fineness, composed almost entirely of the indestructible siliceous frustules, or cell-walls of Diatomacea. From its resemblance to flour it has been mixed with ordinary food and used by the inhabitants of Norway and Sweden, who supposed it to be nutritious, but it seems to derive its chief value from its increasing the bulk of the food, thereby rendering the really nutritious portion more satisfying. In Maryland and eastern Virginia an extensive bed of this organic matter occurs, nearly 100 miles long and 30 feet thick. Smaller deposits occur in North Wales, Ireland and Germany.

BERGSÖE, TÖRGEN WILHELM, a Danish writer; born in Copenhagen, Feb. 8, 1835. In early life he became noted as a zoologist; but the use of the microscope induced temporary blindness, and he turned his attention to poetry, and afterwards to writing novels. His productions were very popular. Fra Piazza del Popolo; Bruden fra Rorvig; Fra gamle Dage; Fra Sollyse Strande; and Rome under Pius IX, are among his best writings.

BERGUES, a town in the department of the Nord, northeast France, five miles from Dunkirk, on the Colne. The canal of Bergues, which admits vessels of 300 tons burden, unites it with Dunkirk and the sea, and its favorable situation makes it the entrepôt of the produce of the adjoining country. It has a college, a hospital and a public library; also manufactories of soap, tobacco, earthenware, and sugar and salt refineries. Population 1891, 5,738. BERGYLT, a name often applied to the rose-fish (Sebastes marinus) of the northern seas. Sometimes it is known as Norwegian haddock. The fish belongs to the same family as the sticklebacks. It is used for food by the inhabitants of Greenland and Shetland.

BERHAMPUR, the name of two towns in British India. 1. Berhampur in Madras is a military station in the district of Ganjam, 23 miles S. W. of the town of Ganjam, and but 9 from the coast. The climate is very healthful, and there is some trade in sugar and silk fabrics. Population, about 20,000. 2. Berhampur in Bengal, situated on the left bank

of the Bhagirathi, 5 miles below Murshidabad. It was long one of the principal military stations in British India, and the barracks, now largely devoted to other uses, still form the most important feature of the town. It has also fine public buildings and a government college. In 1857 Berhampur was the scene of the first open act of mutiny. Population, about 27,000.

BERING OR BEHRING SEA QUESTION. (See Bering's Strait, Vol. III, pp. 509, 510, and POLAR REGIONS, Vol. XIX, p. 318, for Bering Strait and Sea and Ivan I. Bering, the discoverer.) In 1870, after the transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States, the Pribilof Islands, in Bering Sea, were leased by the United States government to the Alaska Commercial Company for 20 years, and this company also rented the Commander Islands from Russia. The company was allowed to take not more than 100,000 seals from the Pribilof Islands per annum, and the seals taken were to be exclusively young males, not breeding-males or any females. The company paid to the government $50,000 per annum as rent, and in addition a tax of $2 on each skin shipped from the islands. The value of fur-seal skins shipped from the territory and sold in the London market during the first 23 years of American occupation amounted to nearly $33,000,000. In 1890 a new lease of the islands under similar conditions was granted to the North American Fur-Sealing Company.

In the earlier part of the year vast herds of these seals, on their way to the breeding-grounds, pass the coast of Washington and British Columbia, and were there hunted at sea, in former times, by the Indians; but in recent years British and American schooners employed the Indians and killed the seals in vast numbers. These schooners, and likewise those of other European nations, pursued the seals into Bering Sea, killing indiscriminately half-grown pups and females upon which depended the future supply. The United States government asserted exclusive rights over the Bering Sea which gave rise to the diplomatic controversy now called the Bering Sea Question. The killing of the seals developed to such an extent that it became apparent that the careful regulation of the slaughter on the breeding-islands would not be sufficient to prevent the extermination of the species. In 1880 the total number of fur-seal skins taken by the pelagic hunting was 19,150, valued at $172,350, but the number had increased to 43,779 in 1890. In the summer of 1891 the British government and that of the United States agreed to submit to arbitration the dispute over the rival claims of the two countries, and to send a joint commission of experts to the seal islands to examine into the question, the killing of the seals both by British and American citizens being in the mean time prohibited until May, 1892, or "during the pendency of arbitration," with the exception of 7,500 per annum, to be killed by the American company. The claims presented before the arbitrators may be briefly summarized as follows: The United States claimed that Russia, prior to the cession of Alaska to the United States, exercised undisputed control over the Bering Sea which was not included in the phrase Pacific Ocean, as used

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Cromwell became Protector, Berkeley influenced the people not to acknowledge his authority, and a fleet was sent from England to bring the colony and its governor to terms. Berkeley's diplomacy soon made matters smooth with the home government, but he had to resign his office. At the restoration Charles II reinstated Berkeley, but his second term of office was unsatisfactory. The so-called "Bacon rebellion" arose, provoked by Berkeley's faithlessness towards the Indiana and his duplicity with regard to the patriot Bacon. The governor saw how unpopular he was making himself by his erratic conduct, and he became bitter and inhuman. After Bacon's death he persecuted his followers, and executed them with such indecent haste that the king said he had "taken more lives in that naked country than I have for the murder of my father." Berkeley was opposed to free schools, printing and religious liberty. Charles II recalled him, intending to examine into the reports of his harsh measures, but Berkeley died soon after his return to Europe.

BERKLEY, a town in Norfolk County, southeast Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, opposite Norfolk, and on the Norfolk and Southern railroad; has good schools, a knitting-mill, lumber-mills and ship-building. Population 1890, 3,899.

BERKLEY, SIR GEORGE, civil engineer; born in London, April 26, 1821; died Dec. 20, 1893. From 1835 to 1841 he worked as apprentice in machineshops; was assistant to Robert Stephenson on the Northeastern and the Eastern Counties railroads from 1841 to 1849; from 1849 to 1859 examined the water-supply of Liverpool, representing Stephenson; was assistant and then chief engineer of the Great Indian Peninsular railroad; was consulting-engineer for railways in Natal and viaducts in Cape Colony for the colonial office in 1874; consulting engineer to the Indian Midland railroad in 1885; and engineer to the Argentine Northeastern railroad in 1887. He was a prominent member of the Institute of Civil Engineers and active in the management of the Royal Institution. In May, 1893, he was knighted.

BERKLEY SPRINGS OR BATH, a town, the capital of Morgan County, northeast West Virginia; 50 miles E. of Cumberland, Maryland, on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; has medicinal springs that are frequented for the cure of rheumatism and catarrh; has also a tannery. Population 1890, about 800; no return separate from the district of Bath having been made.

BERLICHINGEN, GÖTZ VON, German knight; the last worthy representative of the chivalry of the middle ages; born at Jaxthausen, Würtemberg, in 1480; died July 23, 1562; at the siege of Landshut lost his right hand and replaced it with an iron hook, on account of which he was named "Götz of the Iron Hand"; engaged in feuds between the German princes; was the leader in the peasants' war of 1525; was made prisoner for 11 years; afterwards took part in campaigns in Hungary and France; wrote an autobiography which furnishes an excellent account of life in his period. His career furnished the basis for Goethe's drama, Götz von Berlichingen. BERLIN, capital of Prussia, and seat of govern

ment of the German Empire. (For history, description and institutions, see BERLIN, Vol. III, p. 593.) In 1890 the population of Berlin had reached 1,580,000. Private houses of more than five inhabited stories, and over 72 feet high, were prohibited in 1887. The increase in the value of house property has been enormous, and the result is, that about one tenth of the population are driven to take up their abode in cellars underground, and more than 63,000 families live in dwellings of one room.

Berlin contains very many fine public buildings, the recent additions to these including the Industrial (1881), Ethnological (1886) and other museums, the Academy of Music, the Observatory, the

THE REICHSTAG BUILDING, BERLIN.

new Cathedral, the new Reichstag or Parliament Hall, in which the German Parliament assembled for the first time in 1894, many scientific and learned societies, several seminaries, and a large number of public and private institutions for benevolent uses. Among its fourscore elegant churches, the Michaelskirche (Catholic), Thomaskirche, Zionskirche, Dankeskirche (1884) and Heiligekranzkirche (1887) are the finest and most recent.

The commerce and manufactures of Berlin have increased so rapidly of late years, that it now ranks among the most important mercantile places of continental Europe. The traffic is carried on by the Spree, the canals, and fourteen railways, of which the intramural, or "city railway," opened in 1882, has a

length of seven miles, and passes through the middle of the city from east to west, and the suburban or "ring railway," 23 miles long, forms a complete circle round its outskirts. Annually the

city railway carries eight million passengers; the city omnibuses, thirteen; and the tramway cars, seventy million. The traffic by water is 50 per cent greater than that of any inland town of Gerinany, amounting in one year to 3,716,000 tons. The staple commodities are grain, cattle, spirits and wool. The Exchange, daily visited by 3,500 persons, is the center of the North German money market. The Reichsbank is the chief bank in Germany for the issue of notes. It has $30,000,000 of paid-up capital, and 218 branch offices. The principal branches of industry are woolen-weaving, calico-printing and the manufacture of engines and other machinery (for which there are now 100 establishments), also of iron, steel and bronze wares, woven goods and confections. Of ladies' mantles alone Berlin produces annually $25,000,000 worth (two-thirds for export trade). It has also very important manufactures of railway and other carriages, sewing-machines, safes, telegraphic apparatus, scientific instruments, chronometers, steel pens and jewelry.

THE BRANDENBURG GATE, BERLIN.

In 1890 the new system of carrying off and disposing of the sewage of the city was completed. This is the sewage farm system successfully adopted in some cities in England, but first used on a large scale in Berlin. The city is divided into districts, each one having an independent sewerage system. The sewage is collected at a central point in each district, and pumped from there by means of a tunnel to outlying waste tracts. There the refuse is so treated as to make it a means of fertilizing the land. This is perhaps the best system of drainage in use by any city in the world.

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those men, beginning with the richest, whose combined taxes make up one third of the whole city tax; (2) of those whose taxes equal a second third; and (3) of the remainder. Each division has the privilege of electing one third of the council. All the tramways, gas and electric-lighting plants and the telephone system are the property of the city.

BERLIN CONGRESS OR BERLIN TREATY, a meeting of the representatives of the European powers held in Berlin from June 13 to July 13, 1878, to decide on disputes growing out of the TurcoRussian war of 1877. The nations represented were England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy and Turkey. It was called at the suggestion of Austria by Prince Bismarck in behalf of Germany. The men who, as representatives of their respective governments, were most influential in bringing the negotiations to a successful close were: For Russia, Count Gortschakoff; England, Lords Beaconsfield and Salisbury; Austria, Count Andrassy; Italy, Count Corti; France, M. Waddington; Turkey, Carathéodori Pasha; and Germany, Prince Bismarck, who acted as president of the conference. For terms of the treaty, its previous history and results, see TURKEY, Vol. XXIII, p. 652.

BERLIN, UNIVERSITY OF. (For early history, see BERLIN, Vol. III, p. 596; and UNIVERSITIES, Vol. XXIII, pp. 848, 849.) The university, like all of the higher educational institutions of Germany, is controlled by the state, supported by the state, and all its officers are state officers. In 1883 Berlin University received from the government about $1,000,000, which is the largest sum received by any of the German universities, the average income being $250,000. The optional system in selection of studies, the system in use throughout the empire, prevails. There were, in 1892, 336 members of the faculty, including all instructors and lecturers. About 800 courses are offered each year. In 1891 there were enrolled 5,527 students, about one tenth of whom were Americans.

BERLIN, a town, the capital of Waterloo County, southwest Ontario, Canada, on Grand River, about 60 miles W. of Toronto, and on the Grand Trunk railroad. It contains a number of manufactories, the chief staples being buttons, malt liquors and leather. It has a Catholic college and a large number of churches, numerous hotels and substantial business blocks. Population 1891, 7,425.

BERLIN, a city of Green Lake County, southWisconsin, situated on Fox River, about 100 miles N. W. of Milwaukee and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad. Here are extensive foundries and manufactories of turbine wheels, woolen goods, flour, whips, boots and shoes and leather. Cranberries and dairy products are among the principal articles of trade. Extensive granitequarries are located here, most of their products being shipped to Chicago, and, when crushed, used in street-paving. Population 1890, 4,149.

BERLIN DECREE. See CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, in these Supplements. See also TURKEY, Vol. XXIII, p. 652.

BERMUDA GRASS (Cynodon Dactylon) is a low, creeping perennial grass, probably a native of India,

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but now found in most warm and tropical countries. Its great endurance of drought has caused it to be a very valuable pasture and hay grass in many regions, but in others the great difficulty of its eradication has made it a pest. Also called "Bahama grass.” BERMUDA HUNDRED, a village in Chesterfield County, east-central Virginia, on the right bank of the James River, above the mouth of the Appomattox, 18 miles S. E. of Richmond. It became known as the headquarters of General Butler during the siege of Petersburg and as a position selected by him in 1864, when he commanded the army of the James, numbering about 25,000 Federals, where he might intrench himself and await Grant's arrival. In the vicinity of this position there was constant fighting between Butler's troops and those of the Confederate Gen. Beauregard, whose forces were 20,000 strong. The fighting continued from May 16th to 30th. On the 16th Heckman's brigade was destroyed by the Confederates, who were then pushing on to Bermuda Hundred, when Ames and Gilmore came up, and Beauregard's plans miscarried. On the 19th the Confederates assaulted the rifle-pits, under Ames and Terry, but without success. Skirmishing continued until the 30th, when the Confederates desisted. Bermuda Hundred was a valuable position, since it was very near both Richmond and Petersburg. Butler's enforced inactivity gave rise to the phrase, "Bottled up in Bermuda Hundred."

BERMUDAS, a British colonial possession, consisting of 360 small islands in the Atlantic Ocean, 568 miles E. of North Carolina, and 677 miles from New York. Of these islands but 20 are inhabited. Total area, 20 square miles (12,000 acres-4,000 under cultivation). Population in 1893, 15,519, including 5,916 whites. Capital, Hamilton, with a population of about 1,300. For early history and description, see BERMUDAS, Vol. III, pp. 599, 600.

There were, in 1893, 47 schools, with about 1,400 students, 23 of these schools receiving government grants to the amount of $8,250 annually. Average strength of imperial troops, 2,913. In 1894 the revenues were estimated at $162,375, and the expenditures at $171,080. Public debt in 1894, $235,500. The value of onions exported in 1894 was $231,615; lily bulbs, $91,805; and potatoes, $98,050. The total exports in 1894 amounted to $491,885. The imports that year amounted to $1,430,235. In 1890 the laying of a cable telegraph to Halifax, Nova Scotia, was completed.

BERMUDEZ, a state in the northeast part of Venezuela, between the Orinoco and the Caribbean Sea, formed in 1881 from the former states and present sections of Barcelona, Cumaná, and Maturin. Area, 32,243 square miles; population, 300,ooo. Its principal cities are Barcelona, Cumaná, and Maturin. There are a number of silver-mines within its territory, also iron, coal and copper. Within its bounds is Bermudez Lake, 100 miles from the island of Trinidad. It contains an immense deposit of asphalt.

BERNALILLO, a town in Bernalillo County, northwest New Mexico, situated on the Rio Grande, about 15 miles above Albuquerque, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé railroad. It is an old

town and the seat of a convent; is the Tiguex of Coronado's time. It is an important outfitting station for the adjacent mining-regions, and is the commercial and manufacturing center of an extensive wine-producing and fruit-growing district. Population about 1,000.

BERNARD OF CLUNY, born in Morlaix, Brittany, about 1140, sometimes confounded with Bernard of Clairvaux, was a monk at Cluny under Peter the Venerable. It is from Bernard's great work, De Contemptu Mundi, that Dr. Neale translated Jerusalem the Golden and other hymns. See HYMNS, Vol. XII, p. 584.

BERNARD, CLAUDE, physiologist; born at SaintJulien, in the south of France, July 12, 1813; died in Paris, Feb. 10, 1878. In 1854 he was appointed professor of general physiology in the Faculty of Sciences in Paris, and in 1855 professor of experimental physiology in the College of France. Among his writings are Nutrition and Develop ment and an Introduction to the Study of Experi mental Medicine. He discovered the saccharine functions of the liver, and the existence of the vasomotor system of nerves. See PHYSIOLOGY, Vol. XIX, p. 11.

BERNARD, SIR FRANCIS, lawyer and colonial governor; born in Nettleham, Lincolnshire, England, in 1714; died at Aylesbury, England, June 16, 1779. He graduated at Oxford, and served in dif ferent offices of importance until 1768, when he was appointed governor of New Jersey. He was appointed to the same office in Massachusetts Bay Colony. He administered the office satisfactorily in the former colony, and for the first nine years in the latter place. The library of Harvard College was burned in 1764, and the governor, who took quite an interest in the college (his third son graduated from the institution in 1767), assisted in procuring funds for its restoration. About that time two political parties arose a royalist faction and a popular party. In trying to strengthen the former, Governor Bernard executed harsh measures and put down popular leaders, thereby arousing great indignation and precipitating the final struggle between the mother-country and her colonies. It is affirmed that he did more to hasten the Revolution than any other man. He had a quick, ungovernable temper

the unhappy faculty of doing just those things which would harass a people already on the brink of rebellion. Conciliatory measures he never tried. The king recalled him, yet he remained nominal governor for two years after his return to England.

BERNARD, THOMAS DEHANY, English clergyman; born in Clifton, England, Nov. 11, 1815; educated at Exeter College, Oxford; vicar of Great Baddow in 1841; canon residentiary of Wells Cathedral in 1868; in 1869 chancellor of Wells Cathedral. Among the best of his writings are The Witness of God; Five Sermons Preached at Oxford; The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament; and Before His Presence with a Song.

BERNARD, GREAT ST., a mountain pass in the Pennine Alps, 8,120 feet in height, the connecting pass between Martigny, Switzerland, and Aosta, Italy. On its summit is the famous St. Bernard