United States v. Smith. *The only question of any importance in this case is, whether the act of the 3d of March 1819, be a *constitutional exercise of the [*167 power delegated to congress cf "defining and punishing piracies ?" entia locum habere non potest, ubi, etsi personae jus deficiat cum Deo negotium est; qua de causa juramentum votinomine nuncupatur. Neque id quod sumit Cicero verum est, nullum esse cum prac done juris societatem. Nam depositum ex ipso gentium jure reddendum latroni, si dominus non apparet recte Tryphonino responsum est." These passages abundantly show the opinion of Grotius, that piracy, by the law of nations, is the same thing as piracy by the civil law; and though he nowhere defines the crime, in precise terms, yet there seems to be no doubt as to what he understood to be comprehended in that crime. Pirata, latrones, prædones, are used to denote the same class of offenders; the first term being generally applied to robbers or plunderers on the sea, and the others to robbers or plunderers on land. The terms are, indeed, convertible in many instances, in the civil law. Thus, in the title, De Lege Rhodia de Jactu (Dig. lib. 14, tit. 2, §3), it is said: "Si navis a piratis redempta sit, Servius, Osilius, Labeo, omnes conferre debere aiunt. Quod vero praedones abstulerint, cum perdere cujus fuerit, nec conferendum ei qui suas merces redimerit." Bynkershoek (Quæst. Jur. Pub. c. 17), treating on the subject of piracy, says: "interest scire qui piratæ ac latrones sunt, nam ab his capta dominium non mutant neque adeo postliminio egent. Sic docet ratio; sic auctoritas juris in l. 19, § 2, 1. 24, and 1. 27, de Capt. et Postlim. Rev. (Dig. lib. 49, tit. 15) et sic ex pactis quarandam gentium supra probavi. Non est igitur ut addam auctoritates Grotii de Jure B. et P., 1. 3, c. 9, $16; Alberici Gentilis, de Jure Belli, lib. 1, c. 4; Zoucheii, de Jure Feciali, p. 2, § 8, qu. 15, aliorumque plurium in eandem sententiam. Qui autem nullius principis auctoritate sive mari sive terra, rapiunt, piartarum praedonumque vocabulo intelliguntur." Azuni (part 2, c. 5, §3) says: "A pirate is one who roves the sea in an armed vessel, without any commission or passport from any prince or sovereign state, solely on his own authority, and for the purpose of seizing by force, and appropriating to himself, without discrimination, every vessel he may meet. For this reason, pirates have always been compared to robbers. The only difference between them is, that the sea is the theatre of action for the one, and the land for the other." ( 11.) "Thus, as pirates are the enemies of the human race, piracy is justly regarded as a crime against the universal laws of society, and is everywhere punished with death. As they form no national body, as they have no right to arm, nor make war, and on account of their indiscriminate plunder of all vessels, are considered only as public robbers, every nation has a right to pursue, and exterminate them, without any declaration of war. For these reasons, it is lawful to arrest them, in order that they may undergo the punishment merited by their crimes." (§ 12.) "Pirates having no right to make conquests, cannot, therefore, acquire any lawful property in what they take; for the law of nations does not authorize them to deprive the true owner of his property, who always retains the right of reclaiming it, wherever it may be found. Thus, by the principles of common law, as well as the law of nature, at whatever period, or in whatever manner, things taken by a pirate may be recovered, they return again to their former owners, who lose none of their rights, by such unjust usurpation." (See Azuni, part 2, c. 5, art. 3, p. 351, 361, Mr. Johnson's translation.) Lord Bacon, in his dialogue de Bello Sacro says, "Indubitatum semper fuit, bellum contra piratus juste geri posse per nationem quamcumque, licet ab iis minime infestatam et læsam, &c., &c. Vera enim causa hujus rei hæc est, quod piratæ communes humani generis hostes sint; quos id circo omnibus nationibus persequi incumbit, non tam propter metus proprios quam respectu fœderis inter homines sociales. Sicut enim quædam sunt fœderis inscriptis et in tractatus redacta contra hostes particulares inita; ita naturalis et tacita confœderatio inter omnes homines intercedit contra communes societatis humanæ hostes." (10 Bac. Works, 313, 314, ed. 1803.) United States v. Smith. *The act declares, that any person who shall commit on the high seas Martens, in his Essay on Privateers, Captures and Re-captures (c. 1, § 1), says, "L'armateur differe du pirate, (1) Le premier est muni d'une commission ou de lettres de marque du souverain, dont le pirate est destitué. (2) L'armateur suppose le cas d'une guerre, (ou du moins celui de represailles,) le pirate pille au sein de la paix comme au milieu de la guerre. (3) L'armateur s'oblige d'observer les ordonnances et les instructions qui lui ont été donneés, et de n'attaquer qu'en consequence de celles ci de l'ennemi, et ceux des vaisseux neutres qui font un commerce illicite, le pirate pille indistinctement les vaisseaux de toutes les nations, sans observer même les loix de la guerre." Rutherforth (Inst. b. 2, c. 9, § 9, p. 481), speaking with reference to the law of nations, says, "All wars of a nation against its external enemies are not public wars. To make a war a public one, both the contending parties must be public persons; that is, it must be a war of one nation against another, &c. Where a nation makes war upon pirates or other robbers, though these are external enemies, the war will be a mixed one; it is public on one side, because a nation or public person is one of the parties; but it is private on the other side, because the parties on this side are private persons, who act together occasionally, and are not united into a civil society. A band of robbers or a company of pirates may, in fact, be united to one another by compact, &c. But they are still, by the law of nature, only a number of unconnected individuals; and consequently, in the view of the law of nations, they are not considered as a collective body or public person. For the compact by which they unite themselves is void, because the matter of it is unlawful, &c. The common benefit which a band of robbers, or a company of pirates, propose to themselves, consists in doing harm to the rest of mankind." Wooddeson (Lect. 34, vol. 2, 422), treating on captures at sea, after stating that the law of nations is part of the law of England, and that captures at sea may happen either by pirates, or by way of reprisal, or as prize of war, says, "piracy, according to the law of nations, is incurred by depredations on or near the sea, without authority from any prince or state." He then quotes the opinion of Sir Leoline Jenkins, with approbation, that it is piracy, not only when a man robs, without any commission at all, but when, having a commission, he despoils those with whom he is not warranted to fight or meddle, such as are de legantia vel amicitia of the prince or state which hath given him his commission. He then adds, "but according to the judgments of our domestic tribunals, a bare assault, without taking or pillaging something away, does not constitute the crime, though Molloy pretends, that by the law of nations, it is otherwise. Yet it does not seem necessary that any person should be on board the pillaged vessel." "If these violations of property be perpetrated by any national authority, they are the commencement of a public war; if without that sanction, they are acts of piracy." He then proceeds to state several cases which had arisen in the admiralty of England, and sums up his remarks as follows: "The foregoing particulars are the more deserving of consideration, because it seems agreed, that when a piratical taking is ascertained, it becomes a clear and indisputable consequence, that there is no transmutation of property. No right to the spoil vests in the piratical captor; no right is derivable from them to any re-captors, in prejudice of the original owners. These piratical seizures being wholly unauthorized, and highly criminal, by the law of nations, there is no pretence for divesting the dominion of the former proprietor. This principle, therefore, a piratis et latronibus capta dominium non mutant,' is the received opinion of ancient civilians and more modern writers on general jurisprudence. The same doctrine was maintained in our courts of common law, long antecedent to the great cultivation and improvements made in the science of the law of nations. And he remarks in a note (p. 427, note n), “I have looked into the indictment against Luke 1 United States v. Smith. be attributed to no other cause, than to the uncertainty which it was known existed on this subject in the *law of nations, and which it [*171 must have been the intention of the framers of the constitution to Ryan, tried at the admiralty sessions, March 1782, for piracy, and who is alleged to have had a Dutch commission. He was indicted, not for piracy, generally, by the law of nations, but for that, being a natural-born subject, he piratically, &c., against the form of the statute." From the whole scope of Mr. Wooddeson's observations on the subject of piracy, it is very clear, that he considered piracy, as punishable by the law of the admiralty, to be no other than piracy by the law of nations. The definition of piracy, and Mr. Wooddeson's comments, are cited with approbation by Mr. Gwillim, in his late edition of Bacon's Abridgment. (5 Bac. Abr. 310, ed. 1807, London.) Burlamaqui (part 2, c. 7, § 41) says: "Lastly, as to the wars of robbers and pirates, if they do not produce the effects above mentioned (transmutation of property on capture), nor give to those pirates a right of appropriating what they have taken, it is because they are robbers and enemies of mankind, and consequently, persons whose acts of violence are manifestly unjust, which authorizes all nations to treat them as enemies." Thus far, the authorities cited are such as profess to treat of piracy in terms, according to the law of nations, the notion of which was manifestly derived from the civil law, "on which," as Sir WILLIAM SCOTT observes (The Maria, 1 Rob. 340), “great part of the law of nations is founded." Indeed, in the law of England, it is treated altogether as a civil-law offence, and referred to that law for its definition and punishment. Piracies and depredations at sea are capital offences by the civil law. (5 Bac. Abr. Piracy, 311, Ed. ubi supra; 3 Inst. 112; Hawk. P. C. c. 37; 2 East P. C. 796; 4 Bl. Com. 72.) The commentaries of the common-law writers on the subject of piracy will be more fully considered hereafter. Let us now advert to the definations of the civil law and maritime writers. In the Novels (Nov. 134, tit 17, c. 13), it is declared, "Pro furto autem nolumus omnino quodlibet membrum abscindi, aut mori; sed aliter eum castigari. Fures autem vocamus qui occulte et sine armis hujusmodi delinquunt. Eos vero, qui violenter aggrediuntur aut cum armis aut sine armis in domibus aut itineribus aut in mari pœnis eos legalibus subdi jubemus." Calvinus, in his Lexicon Juridicum, says: "Piratæ dicuntur prædatores marini; sic dicti vel a pirata, qui prius maria infestavit, vel a Gracco ɛpavw, id est, transeo, quod conspecta insula in illam transirent, jam prædaturi. Hinc piratica ars est, quam exercent." In the French Code des Prises (Edition of M. Dufriche Foulaines, Paris, 1804, tom, 1, p. 6), the editor says: "Le pirate est celui qui parcourt les mers avec une batiment armé sans commission ou patente d'aucune etat, dans la vue exclusive de s'approprier tous les navires par la force. La piraterie est un assassinat; tout puissance doit faire arreter et juger des pareils brigands, et en purger la terre." Emerigon (Assur. tom. 1, c. 12, § 28, p. 523) says: "Les pirates sont ceux qui courent les mers sans commission d'aucun prince ni ctat souverain pour depreder las vaisseaux qu'ils rencontrent." "Les ennemis sont ceux, qui autorisés par un prince, on etat souverain font la guerre dans la forme établie par le droit des gens; au lieu que les pirates sont de simples particuliers qui depredent le premier navire qu'ils recontrent." "Les hostilités se commettent de nation á nation; au lieu que la piraterie est un brigandage qui s'exerce sur mer par gens sans aveu, et d'une maniere furtive." "Les pirates sont ennemis du genre humain." "La piraterie, on le brigandage sur mer, est un delit contre la loi universelle des societies," &c. And Emerigon fortifies his opinion on this subject, by citations from the civil law, from other maritime writers, and from Blackstone's Commentaries. It is plain, therefore, that he considered piracy as defined in the civil law, the maritime law, and the common law of England, as the same crime. Bouchard (cited in 1 Emerigon, c. 12, § 23, p. 527), "Les pirates n'ont pas le droit des armes. Ce sont des voleurs et assassins, qui ne forme pas un corps d'etat. Enne United States v. Smith. remove, *by conferring on the national legislature the power which has been mentioned. It was well known to the members of the fed*173] eral convention, that in treatises on the law of nations, or in some mis des toutes les nitions contre lesquelles ils exercent indistinctement leurs brigandages, toutes les nations sont en droit de courir sus, et de les exterminer sans declaration de guerre." M. Bonnemant, in his edition of the Chevalier De Habreu's Treatise on Maritime Captures (Ed. 1802, Paris, part 1, c. 1, § 5, p. 15, note), says, "les pirates sont ceux dont la navigation, les actions et les entreprises ne sont autoriseés ni avoneés par aucune puissance, qui agissent sur la propriété publique et particulière contre le vœu de toutes les nations." And De Habreu himself (as translated by M. Bonnemant, part 2, c. 6, § 1, p. 100, 101), says. "Selon la définition de la prise, il paroît que le droit d'armer en course n'appartient qu'à ceux qui sont ennemis autorisés, appellés en Latin, hostes. D'ou il s'ensuit que les brigands et les pirates sont exclus de ce droit; qu'ils ne peuvent prétendre aux privilèges que les loix de la guerre accorde aux ennemis, et qu'au contraire ils méritent d'être punis rigoureusement comme les malfaiteurs, et qu'on est autorisé à se saisir de tous leurs biens." "De tous les tems les pirates ont été regardés comme des voleurs publics et des perturbateurs de la paix. C'est pour cela qu'il est libre à quiconque s'en saisit de leur ôter la vie sans se rendre coupable d'injustice. La prejudice qu'ils causent à la tranquillité publique, á la liberté du commerce, et à la sûreté de la navigation, a fait que toutes les nations se sont accordées à les poursuivre et à les punir avec la plus grande rigueur." "Ferriere (Dict. du Droits. art. Pirates) says, “Pirates sont des corsaires, ecumeurs de mer, qui font des courses sur mer sans aveu ni autorité du prince ou du souverain." In the Encyclopedie des Sciences, &c. (Ed. 1765, art. Pirate), it is said, "On donne ce nom (Pirate) à des bandits, qui maitres d'une vaisseau vont sur mer attaquer les vaisseaux marchands pour les piller et les voler." Valin (Traité des Prises, c. 3, § 2, p. 29) says, "Or la peine des pirates ou forbans est celle du dernier supplice, suivant l'opinion commune ; parceque ce sont des ennemis declarés de la societé, des violateurs de la foi publique and du droit des gens, des voleurs publiques à main armé et à force ouverte.” Straccha says (De Naut. part 3, n. 30), “Inter piratam et latronem nulla alia est differentia nisi quia pirata depraedator est in mari.” Casaregis (Disc. 64, n. 4) says, "Proprie pirata ille discitur qui sine patentibus alicujus principis ex propria tantum et privata auctoritate per mare discurrit depredendi causâ." Dr. Brown (2 Civ. & Adm. Law 461, 462) says, "Piracy is depredation without authority from any prince or state, or transgression of authority, by despoiling beyond its warrant.” "Unlawful depredation is of the essence of piracy." Beawes (Lex Mercatoria, art. Piracy, p. 250) says, "A pirate is a sea-thief, or an enemy of human kind, who also aims at enriching himself by marine robberies committed either by force, fraud or surprise, on merchants or other traders at sea.' Molloy (b. 1, c. 4, § 1) says, "A pirate is a sea-thief, or hostis humani generis, who, for to enrich himself either by surprise, or open force, sets upon merchants or others trading at sea, ever spoiling their lading, if by possibility they can get the mastery." Marshall (Insur. c. 12, § 11, p. 556) says, "The crime of piracy or robbery on the high seas, is an offence against the universal law of society." It is also said in 16 Viner's Abridgment (art. Pirate and Piracy, A, p. 556) and in Cowell's Interpreter (Pirate): "A pirate is now taken for one who maintains himself by pillage and robbery at sea." Comyn (Dig. Admiralty, E, 3) defines piracy thus: "Piracy is when a man commits robbery upon the sea ;" and he cites as authority, 3 Inst. 113, and 1 Sir L. Jenk. 94. Lord Coke says (3 Inst. 113, Co. Litt. 391), “This word pirate, in Latin, pirata, from the Greek word neparns which again comes from Teipaν, a transcendo mare, of roving upon the sea; and therefore, in English, is called a rover and robber upon the sea." Sir Leoline Jenkins, in his charge at the admiralty sessions, in 1668, says: "You United States v. Smith. of them, at least, definitions of piracy might be found; but it must have been as well known to them, that there was not such a coincidence on this subject, as to render a reference to that code a desirable [*175 are, therefore, to inquire of all pirates and sea-rovers, they are in the law hostes humani generis, enemies, not of one nation, or of one sort of people only, but of all mankind. They are outlawed, as I may say, by the laws of all nations; that is, out of the protection of all princes, and of all laws whatsoever. Everybody is commissioned, and is to be armed against them, as rebels and traitors, to subdue and root them out. That which is called robbing upon the highway, the same being done upon the water, is called piracy. Now, robbery, as it is distinguished from thieving or larceny, implies not only the actual taking away of my goods, while I am, as we say, in peace, but also, the putting me in fear, by taking them by force and arms, out of my hands, or in my sight and presence. When this is done upon the sea, without a lawful commission of war or reprisals, it is downright piracy." (Vol. 1, p. 86.) Again, in another charge, he says: (vol. 1, p. 94) "The next sort of offences pointed at in the statute (28 Hen. VIII., ch. 15) are robberies; and a robbery, when it is committed upon the sea, is what we call piracy. A robbery, when it is committed upon the land, does imply three things: 1. That there be a violent assault; 2. That a man's goods be actually taken from his person or possession; 3. That he who is despoiled be put in fear thereby. When this is done upon the sea, when one or more persons enter on board a ship, with force and arms, and those in the ship have their ship carried away by violence, or their goods taken away out of their possession, and are put in fright by the assault, this is piracy; and he that does so, is a pirate or a robber within the statute." The statute of Henry VIII., here referred to, does not contain any description of piracy. Before that statute, piracy was only cognisable by the civil law, in the admiralty court. But the statute gave the high commission court (created by that statute) jurisdiction of "all treasons, felonies, robberies, murders and confederacies committed in or on the sea," &c. The term piracy is not found in the statute, and it is only as a robbery upon the sea that the high commission court has jurisdiction of piracy. Sir Leoline Jenkins, therefore, refers to the civil-law definition of the offence of piracy; for it is agreed on all sides, that the statute of Henry VIII. has not altered the nature of the offence. (See 1 Hawk. P. C. b. 1, c. 37.) Targa (as I find him quoted by his Spanish translator, Gison, Reflex. c. 61, De los Corsarios o Pyratas, for the original is not before me) says, "Esta (depredacion) se comete de dos modos, o por causa de guerra declarada entre dos naciones, &c., o por modo de hurto violento como ladrones del mar y como hacen los robos en terra los salteadores de caminos; y esto se compuela con la authentica del derecho civil,' que distingue la pyrateria del robo," &c. Again, "A los pyratas como tambien a los salteadores de camino, enemigos comunes, opresores de la libertad y comercio, y como a violadores del derecho de las gentes, puede qualquiera oponerse y los ministros y subditos del principe pueden perseguir los y prender los aunque sea fuera del dominio y se hayan refugiado a los estados confinantes, sin que per esso quede violada la jurisdiccion; y presas que sean, se pendran en poder de la justicia de aquel principe en cuyo estado han sido cogidos." Again, "Y assi concluyo, diciendo, que deben todos guardarse en el mar de pyratas, y en la tierra de ladrones; y todo aquel, que en el mar, playa, puerto, ó otro seno de mar, 6 rio navigable, roba ó apresa, ya sea amigo, esto es, enemigo no declarado, y tambien los paysanos, ó enemigos propriamente tales, 6 con patente, estandarte, ó sin el, ó con engano, ó fuerza, siempre es pyrata." Citations from civilians and maritime writers to the same effect might be multiplied; but they would unnecessarily swell this note. It remains only to notice the doctrines which have been held by the tribunals of Great Britain, and asserted by her commonlaw writers on the subject of piracy. 5 WHEAT.-6 1 Dig. lib. 49, tit. 15, 1. 19, § 2. 81 |