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the Crown." 14. Show how the orators of the earlier diffused at this time? 4. For what kind of audience time had prepared the way for Demosthenes.

CHAPTER XV. THEOCRITUS AND HIS AGE,

1. How was the literary leadership of Athens recognized throughout the fourth century, B. C.? 2. How did the loss of political liberty affect the creative spirit of the Greeks? 3. How was Greek influence widely

was the Alexandrine literature written? 5. What new forms did the epigram take? 6. Describe the work of the great library of Alexandria. 7. What is meant by bucolic poetry? 8. Why did this branch of poetry come to perfection in Sicily? 9. What is known of the life of Theocritus? 10. Upon what story is the most famous poem of Theocritus founded?

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON "THE HUMAN NATURE CLUB."

CHAPTER XIII. SUGGESTION. XIV. IMITATION.

1. What does the forgetfulness of a person who has been hypnotized show? 2. Why do people do absurd things in the hypnotic state? 3. How is the hypnotic state like that of sleep? 4. What instances show remarkably acute sense perceptions in the hypnotic state? 5. Show how in ordinary life we are often extremely susceptible to suggestion. 6. Show how the manner of suggestion in ordinary life differs from that used with hypnotized people. 7. Give illustrations showing that suggestion plays a very important part in many phases of our life. 8. How is suggestion used effectively in medical science? 9. What has it to do with mental healing and Christian science? 10. What mental process may explain our tendency to imitate others? 11. How is this affected by our admiration or dislike for people?

CHAPTER XV. MENTAL TRAINING.

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training give a man ideas which will apply in other situations? 5. How does this training affect our dealings with seemingly different things which really contain the same elements? 6. How does this apply to things which are similar?

CHAPTER XVI. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT.

1. Upon what three kinds of influences does the mental life of every human being depend? 2. Which of these three is perhaps the most important, and why? 3. Which of these is probably responsible both for a man's general ability and for his special mental gifts? 4. Why do children of the same parents differ so radically? 5. What most important characteristics of human nature are the results of education after birth? 6. How may the mother's physical health as well as her character affect the child? 7. Give some of the reasons why we cannot say that parents can alter the germ inheritance of their children. 8. What three views are held by students of criminal life? 9. Why are criminal acts often performed by people who have not a criminal make-up? 10. What does the history of the Juke family seem to show? 11. What facts have been noted in the study of juvenile offenders? 12. What are some of the mental characteristics of average criminals?

NOTES ON THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND ON TANAGRA.

THE SIEGE OF MESOLONGHI.

Mesolonghi. This insignificant town which took its rise in a settlement of fishermen last century, was the center and chief arsenal of Western Hellas in the Greek War of Liberation, and was heroically defended against the Turks by Mavrokordatos in 1822, and by Marco Bozzaris in 1823. After the latter siege its fortifications were restored and strengthened, with the zealous cooperation of Lord Byron, who transferred his residence from Cephalonia to Mesolonghi in January, 1824, but succumbed in the following April to a fever heightened if not produced by his exertions. A third siege was begun by Kioutagi and Ibrahim Pasha on April 27, and carried on for a whole year. At length, under the compulsion of famine, the garrison determined to make an effort to cut their way through the enemy. The desperate attempt was made at midnight on April 22, 1826, when three thousand soldiers and six thousand unarmed persons, including women and children, threw themselves on the Turkish lines. Only thirteen hundred men and two hundred women, with a few children, succeeded in this effort; the rest were driven back to the town by volleys of grape-shot, and mercilessly cut down by the pursuing Turks. The Greeks set fire to many of the powder magazines, and blew up friends and foes alike. With the capture of Mesolonghi the whole of West Hellas was again in the hands of the Porte. In 1828 the Turkish garrison surrendered without resistance. Outside the east gate, near the large military hospital, is the grave of the bold and noble Marco

Bozzaris, who fell in a sortie in August, 1823. Another tomb contains the heart of Lord Byron, whose body was conveyed to England. A monument to the poet was erected here in 1881, but the house in which he lived stands no longer. - Baedeker's "Greece."

THE BATTLE OF NAVARINO.

Pylos or Navarino is now locally known as Neokastro. The admirably sheltered bay of Pylos seems as though intended to play an important part in the history of the Greeks. The name Navarino, which has but recently passed out of use, was derived from some Navarrese mercenaries, who settled here in 1381. The Turks captured the port in 1498, and it remained in their hands until the establishment of Greek independence, except in 1644-48 and 1686-1715, when it was held by the Venetians, and 1770, when the Russians occupied it. In 1821 the Greeks made themselves masters of the town, but in 1825 they were forced to retire before Ibrahim Pasha, who landed here with a strong Egyptian-Turkish fleet, and devastated Messenia with the utmost ferocity. The eventful occurrence of October 20, 1827, which ended the Greek War of Liberation, is well known. Admiral Codrington, in command of the united English, French, and Russian fleet of observation, had demanded the immediate evacuation of the entire Morea by Ibrahim Pasha, and the withdrawal of the Turkish fleet. On these demands being refused, Codrington entered the harbor with twenty-six men-of-war and twelve hundred and seventy

cannon, and annihilated the greater part of the Turkish fleet in barely two hours. Of the eighty-two Turkish ships with about two thousand guns, only twenty-nine remained afloat. The Turks lost about six thousand men; the Allies had one hundred and seventy-two killed and four hundred and seventy wounded.-Baedeker's "Greece."

THE FAMOUS FIGURINES OF TANAGRA.

If from the heights of Parnes we turn our eyes towards the north, we see at its foot a very long and fairly broad depression running to the east towards the straits of Euboea; it is the valley of the Vourienis, the Asopus of the ancients, a stream which possesses this peculiarity amongst others, that its channel only runs dry for a very small part of the year. In the center of this valley, at the confluence of the Vourienis and one of its affluents, lie the scanty remains of the ancient city of Tanagra, quite close to the modern village of Skimatari. Life there, it seems, was easy and agreeable, the wine good, the people courteous, hospitable and charitable, the cock-fights famous throughout Greece; so that altogether Tanagra was an earthly paradise. In addition to this its women were beautiful, "the most comely and graceful in all Greece," says an ancient writer, "from their shape, their bearing, and the rhythm of their movements." For a long time the peasants of the neighboring villages, when tilling their ground, had come across ancient tombs full of vases or statuettes; the name Skimatari (village of figurines) no doubt arose from this, but the objects themselves, found in small numbers, passed through so many hands before they reached a final resting-place that all precise indications of their origin were lost. It was not until 1870 that the explorations were pushed on more actively. A Greek from Corfu, Giorgios Anyphantis, better known under his nickname of Barba-Jorghi (old George), was just at this time engaged in secretly exploring the burial-place of Thespiæ; he heard a report of the discoveries which had been accidentally made at Tanagra, and established himself in the village, where, thanks to the experience he had had in work of this kind, he soon made the most splendid discoveries. Until his arrival the tombs explored had belonged almost exclusively to a very early period, and their contents were not very valuable; he was fortunate enough to find tombs of a later date, more richly provided, and containing objects which fetched a much higher price, so that in a short time he made a very handsome profit. Encouraged by his example, the peasants of the village left their farms and also began to excavate, so that the windows of the Athenian dealers in antiquities soon contained a large number of exceedingly lovely terracotta figurines. The prodigious success which these figures met with in Europe, and the rapid increase in price which followed in consequence, brought sudden riches to the people of Skimatari, and redoubled their zeal. All the land of the village was dug up and turned over in every direction, and as the Greek government made no effort to organize regular excavations, and the Archæological Society of Athens did not condescend to take any interest in these delightful discoveries, the burial-ground of Tanagra was literally plundered by ignorant men whose chief anxiety was to make some lucrative finds. When at last the authorities bethought themselves that the excavations were unauthorized, and the Archæological Society realized that the finest statuettes had been taken out of the country, it was too late. The great anxiety of the ancients was to give their dead a strong and inviolable retreat in order to ensure their repose, and at the same time to protect from desecration the objects of value often placed in the tomb. It was for this purpose that they

endeavored to make the walls of the tomb indestructible and to close it as completely as possible, either by filling the grave with a thick layer of earth or by covering it with heavy slabs of stone forming a kind of lid. At the bottom of the grave the corpse was laid, with the head turned to the east or to the north—in this matter there was no unvarying rule- and all around it, mixed up with the bones and earth in the tombs, were objects of all kinds, buried with the corpse and forming its funeral equipment. There were objects which the dead had used in daily life,- strigils and mirrors, boxes for paints and perfumes, ornaments and children's toys; there were vessels, too, designed to hold their food and drink, dishes of earthenware and bronze, cups and platters, bottles and lamps; there were also coins, and lastly figurines of terracotta.

Amongst the objects laid in the grave these statuettes of terra-cotta form by far the most interesting class. They constitute a little world by themselves of infinite variety, in which we find every style, every fashion, and every period; figurines of men and women, statuettes of divinities and spirits, as well as grotesque and indecent ones; jointed figures like puppets, and hollow figures with a stone inside like rattles; animals of every kind, statuettes of every degree of merit, rudimentary or exquisite, coarse or finished, all differing from one another according to their circumstances and their date.

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"The Tanagra statuettes vary considerably in size: the largest are as much as fifteen inches in height, while the smallest only measure between two and three inches; but the greater number reach a height of about eight inches when seated, or from five to seven when kneeling, and of eight to ten when standing. The appearance of all, however, is the same, and they are all made in the same way.'

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During the twenty years, in fact, that we have been acquainted with these Tanagra figurines, the question has often been put, What do these graceful and dainty little figures represent, with their piquant air, their gait now rapid and agile, now indolent and languishing, and their exquisitely graceful attire? And upon this difficult question there is discord in the camp of the archæologists. On the one hand, M. Heuzey, a champion of delicate taste, undoubted learning and marvelous ingenuity, endeavors to show, with astonishing fertility of argument and remarkable skill, that these figurines so delicate and spirituelles have a religious and symbolical sense, and that under their mundane appearance are concealed the great and mysterious divinities of the lower world. On the other hand, a whole school of archæologists, adopting a simpler and more ordinary explanation, seek for representations of daily life in these graceful statuettes, and will see nothing in them but genre subjects.

Another and not less difficult question arises if we inquire for what reason figurines were placed in the tombs, and in order to reach a solution it may be worth while briefly to recall the conceptions which the Greeks entertained of the life beyond the grave. For them, as for all the other people of antiquity, life did not come to an abrupt close at death, but in the tomb where the body was imprisoned an obscure existence was maintained with all the needs and pleasures and desires of humanity. Even at a later time, when the Greeks pictured to themselves all the souls of the dead assembled in Hades, a subterranean region vaster than the tomb, their only conception of this future life was as a repetition of life on earth. It was therefore the duty of the living to supply food to the dead, who continued to exist within the tomb; and this is the reason why wine and cakes and milk were placed upon the grave, and also why, on certain anniversaries, funeral

banquets were celebrated there, at which the shade of the dead man was present though invisible. It was also the duty of the living to see that in the solitude of the tomb the departed were surrounded by the objects they had cared for on earth, and therefore arms, gymnastic appliances, mirrors, needles, boxes of paints, and cases of perfumes were buried with them. They must not only be provided with necessaries, "but with superfluities as well, they must take their friends and companions down with them into the other world in order to recommence their round of pleasures there; for this reason their horses and dogs were buried with them, and in early ages slaves and captive women were often sacrificed upon the grave, that they might go down into Hades to wait upon the departed, or to enliven his loneliness. In later times when manners became less barbarous, these cruel customs disappeared, and bloodless sacrifices, prayers and music offered at the grave took the place of these sanguinary rites; but still the idea remained that the solitude of the dead man must be enlivened, and the melancholy of

his shade dispelled. To cheer the departed in the depths of the tomb, and to protect him against the dangers of that mysterious journey, was the twofold desire by which the piety of the survivors was inspired. It was for this purpose that the Egyptians placed statuettes in the tomb, to answer the summons of the departed, to aid him in the cultivation of the celestial fields, to form a devoted escort around him, and to secure him immortality. The Assyrians, from a similar motive, placed in the graves figurines designed to avert the hostility of the chthonic powers, and this too is the object of the sepulchral idols found in ancient burialgrounds at Rhodes, which represented the guardian divinities of the tomb and afforded escort and society for the departed. This is also undoubtedly the reason why the cemeteries of Tanagra and of Myrina are full of terra-cotta statuettes; but this question is still keenly disputed according as we look to one or the other of these two dominant ideas - the wish to protect the dead, and the wish to provide them with company in the grave.-"Excursions in Greece." Diehl.

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ANSWERS TO SEARCH QUESTIONS.

APRIL.

99 THE RIVALRY OF NATIONS. 1. Australasia, $79,321,600; Africa, $73,229,100; United States, $71,053,400. 2. The total area of Siberia is 5,000,000 square miles; population, from five million to six million, half of which represents semi-nomadic tribes. 3. The length of the TransSiberian railway is 4,950 miles. 4. The island of Hongkong was ceded to England in perpetuity in 1843. It is a British crown colony, administered by a governor with an executive and a legislative council. 5. The Merovingian dynasty was founded in 486 by the Merovingians, a Salian Frankish tribe, under Clovis; Charlemagne established the Carlovingian dynasty in 768. 6. Confucius, a celebrated Chinese philosopher, was born about 550 B. C. He was descended from an illustrious but impoverished family. He held various public cffices, but devoted the last years of his life to the completion of his literary undertakings and to teaching. After his death his followers venerated his memory, and his teachings were accepted as almost divine. 7. The area of Japan (exclusive of the territory recently acquired by treaty from China) is 147,655 square miles; population (1893), 41,089,940. 8. Commodore M. C. Perry was a brother of Oliver H. Perry.

A READING JOURNEY IN THE ORIENT. -APRIL.

1. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis (in Cyprus), Chios, Argos, and Athens contended for the honor of being Homer's birthplace. Of these, the best evidence connects him with Smyrna. 2. (This question was

given incorrectly in the April issue. It should have read, "What is the story of Dædalus?") Dædalus was a famous Athenian artificer, who built the labyrinth as a home for the Minotaur by order of Minos, king of Crete. Dædalus afterward lost favor with Minos, and was imprisoned by him. Seeing no other way of escape, he made out of feathers wings for his son Icarus and Then poising himself, which he fastened on with wax. themselves in the air, they flew away. Icarus, however, in spite of his father's warnings, soared too near the sun, and its heat softened the waxen fastenings of his wings. Off they came, and the boy fell into the sea, which is named Icarian for him. Dædalus finally arrived in Sicily, where he built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings as an offering to the god. But Minos learned of his hiding-place, and followed him to Sicily with a large fleet, and Daedalus would surely have perished, had not one of the daughters of Cocalus disposed of Minos by scalding him to death while he was bathing. 3. The faithful swineherd of Ulysses, a character in the Odyssey. When Ulysses came home from the Trojan war in the guise of a beggar, Eumæus received him kindly and afterwards helped Ulysses and Telemachus in their battle with the suitors of Penelope. 4. A holy picture or mosaic- especially one representing Christ, the Virgin, or some saint or martyr - often richly adorned with jewels and commonly regarded as miraculous either in origin or in power. 5. The Odyssey, Book III. 6. Acts, xvi. : 11. "Therefore loosing from Troas, we came with a straight course to Samothracia, and the next day to Neapolis."

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with CURRENT EVENTS PROGRAMS

VIII. THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH AND SOUTH POLES.

BY GILBERT H. GROSVENOR.
(Managing Editor, National Geographic Magazine.)

Abruzzi, Duke of. "Farthest North Eclipsed." (National Geographic Magazine, October, 1900.) A brief account of the expedition, led by the Italian prince, that gained the record for the farthest north. Andrée. "Letters from the Andrée Party." (McClure's,

March, 1898.) Gives graphic description of the inception and completion of Andrée's bold plans for gaining the North Pole in a balloon.

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Cook, F. A. Surgeon and anthropologist of the Belgian Antarctic Expedition. "Through the First Antarctic Night." (New York, Doubleday & McClure, 1900, $3.) The popular record of the explorations of the south polar expedition of 1898-99, the first expedition to pass a winter within the Antarctic Circle. The appendix contains a summary of the scientific results. Chapters of the book appeared in McClure's, November, 1899 ("The Belgian Antarctic Expedition"), and Scribner's, December, 1899 ("Possibilities of Antarctic Exploration "). Fricker, Karl. "The Antarctic Regions." (New York, Macmillan Co., 1900, $2. Translation.) history of discovery in the far south from Cook, Wilkes, and Ross to the present time, with admirable chapters on the conformation of the surface and the geological structure, the climate, fauna and flora, etc., of south polar regions. Greely, Gen. A. W. "Handbook of Arctic Discoveries." (Boston, Roberts Bros., 1896, $1.) compact history of arctic exploration, with an exhaustive bibliography. "Three Years of Arctic Service." (New York, Scribners, 1894, new edition.) The story of the famous Greely expedition of 188184. Tells of the heroic explorations and terrible sufferings of the party, and gives a vivid portrayal of the perils of the search for the pole. "Race for

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by letting the ship be frozen in the ice, and then drifting with the ice to or near the pole. He is also the inventor of a type of vessel, which, instead of resisting ice-pressure, is lifted upon the ice by the pressure. This book gives the record of his explorations during 1893-1896 on the Fram, when he gained "farthest north." "Future Arctic Exploration." (McClure's, February, 1898.) Nansen believes that a vessel, like the Fram, a floating observatory, entering the ice from Bering Strait between 160-170 degrees west longitude would be carried across the sea much to the north of the Fram's route, and possibly across the pole itself. Peary, R. E.

"Northward over the Great Ice." (New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co., 2 vols., 1898.) A complete record of Peary's arctic work up to 1898. Deals more especially with Greenland, which Peary was the first to prove an island. "Outlines of My Arctic Campaign." (McClure's, March, 1899.) Presents the plans of the campaign which Peary has been waging since the summer of 1898. Peary is now passing his third consecutive winter in the arctics, and is determined not to return till he has gained the pole. Wellman, Walter. Quest of the North Pole." (Review of Reviews, February, 1898.) The author advocates approaching the pole by sledding across Franz Josef Land, and then making "A Dash for the Pole" from the most northern land. 64 The Wellman Expedition.' (National Geographic Magazine, December, 1899). Narrates the experiences of the expedition led by Wellman in accordance with the above plan, 1898-1899. "Where is Andrée?" (McClure's, March, 1898.) Conjectures as to the fate of Andrée.

Number One

1.

CURRENT EVENTS PROGRAMS.

Reading: From "Three Years of Arctic Service," Greely (listed above).

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2.

Oration: Arctic Heroes.

3.

the North Pole." (Munsey, June, 1899.) A discussion of the different routes projected for gaining the North Pole. General Greely advocates striking from Greenland rather than from Franz Josef Land. "Scope and Value of Arctic Explorations. tional Geographic Magazine, January, 1896.) Jackson, F. G. "A Thousand Days in the Arctics." (New York, Harpers, 1899.) Especially interesting as the narrative of the man whose chance meeting with Nansen in Franz Josef Land saved the latter from destruction. Markham, C. R. "Antarctic Exploration and its Importance." (Forum, February, 1898.) A statement of the necessity for south polar exploration by the leading authority on the subject, the president of the Royal Geographical Society. Meyer, E. T. "The Ermak Icebreaking Ship." (THE CHAUTAUQUAN, June, 1899.) A description of a 3. type of vessel that may prove an important factor in gaining the poles.

Paper: (1) The Use of Stimulants in Polar Expeditions. (2) What Polar Expeditions have contributed to Science.

4. Debate: Resolved, That polar explorations do not pay. Number Two

1.

2.

Nansen, Fridtjof. "Farthest North." (New York, 4.
Harpers, 1898, one volume edition.) Dr. Nansen is
the originator of the plan of reaching the North Pole

Reading: (1) From

66

"A Thousand Days in the Arctics," by Jackson (listed above). (2) From Nansen's Farthest North" (listed above). Oration: When the North Pole shall have been Discovered.

Paper: (1) The Necessity of South Polar Exploration. (2) Why continue the search for the North Pole?

Debate: Resolved, That Nansen's "drift" plan is the most tenable theory of arctic exploration which has been advanced.

HOW CHAUTAUQUA CIRCLES HAVE PROMOTED PUBLIC LIBRARIES.

Our circle pages this month are devoted entirely to reports showing how the circles have helped to establish or to foster public libraries in their towns or villages. There are many unwritten chapters in this part of the history of the C. L. S. C., and we hope in the future to present much interesting history of past achievements side by side with that which the circles are accomplishing today. The following reports, show in how many different ways the circles have had an influence upon the library movement. In addition to these reports, other interesting facts have come to our notice: the circle at Jarretsville, Maryland, explain their remarkably excellent library, for so small a town, by the school law of Maryland, which requires a county to give ten dollars for a school library whenever the school itself shall raise ten dollars. The Chautauquans and others of Jarrettsville have made the most of this opportunity, and by entertainments of various kinds have secured many appropriations of ten dollars from the county funds. At Havana, Illinois, the law provided for the maintenance of a public library, but it was a committee from the Chautauqua circle that reminded the town officials of the fact, and brought about public agitation and additional funds. Mr. Carnegie has promised a building, and the library which was opened two years ago in a room in the town hall will soon have a home of its own.

At Ridgefarm, Illinois, the circle have made a brave beginning in library work by collecting some sixty excellent books which have been put into circulation, though this library has not yet even a reading room. At Cazenovia, New York, the public library is housed in a former residence the use of which is given by a public-spirited citizen, Mr. Hubbard. The library is sustained by private subscriptions and entertainments. The Art Class" conducted by Miss Dows, and engaged in the study of Chautauqua courses for some fifteen years past, has recently given two entertainments in aid of the library funds one a "mummy tea" in honor of an Egyptian mummy presented to the library, and the other an exhibition of needlework, the result of the two undertakings being a donation of one hundred and thirty dollars' worth of books.

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SUMMERVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA.

The Timrod Circle has celebrated its fourth and best year by extending its work and carrying its influence beyond the limits of the Chautauqua class. The great

lack in our town was a circulating library. There had been in previous years several attempts to supply this need, but all efforts had failed, leaving as a total result only two hundred books and a large amount of discouragement. The first of these the Timrod Circle seized upon the last it would not consider - and could do towards raising popular interest and the went to work to see what twenty-three Chautauquans necessary funds.

Subscriptions at one dollar a year and the neverfailing bazaar did wonders towards accomplishing both of these ends, and soon we were ordering new books Here we met with assistance from outside our circle. and arranging the rooms we had rented for our library. One generous friend promised us the magazines for each month, and made us valuable contributions in the way of furniture. Others helped with the furnishings, and many donated books.

After constant but successful work, we opened our library early in January with an afternoon tea, and many subscribers collected to approve our enterprise and drink to its success.

Since that time we have met only with encourageroll, and "The Timrod Library" is becoming of greater ment. Every week new subscribers are added to our public interest. Lately we have received an evidence of this interest in a contribution from a few young men of Summerville. They gave an entertainment for the benefit of the library, at which they raised an amount sufficient to purchase a set of the "Encyclopædia Britannica." This we appreciate doubly as it is the first donation of money that we have received.

Other members of the C. L. S. C. may be interested

in hearing how we manage the library. It is controlled entirely by the members of the Timrod Circle, but any one may become a subscriber by paying the annual fee. The library is open three times a week, and for three hours at a time. On each occasion two members of the circle are in charge. We take turns in acting as librarians, and all of us find it a genuine pleasure. The rules governing the borrowing of books, etc., are the same as those maintained in other libraries, and they are as rigidly enforced as in any large public library.

We do not feel that we have yet attained our goal. We hope the day is near at hand when we may employ a regular librarian, and open the library every day; and to some of the more optimistic even a new library building is not beyond the pale of ambition. But all of this we are content to let come by degrees, granting time, and in the meanwhile we shall feel that we have that the degrees are marked by work as well as by met with additional success if our efforts inspire a similar exertion in other branches of the C. L. S. C.

CHARLOTTE, VERMONT.

Two views of the library at Charlotte, Vermont, will be found in this number of the C. L. S. C. Round Table, and for these, as well as for the entertaining account of the library enterprise, we are indebted to the secretary of the C. L. S. C., Miss Emma Leavenworth. The circle has a membership of eleven, three of whom are graduates, and we are glad to know that their secretary, who is a member of the class of 1901, expects to represent them at Chautauqua this summer:

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