China, Treaties with-Continued. Traffic in Opium: Judicial Procedure.Nov. 17, 1880, another treaty of commercial intercourse and judicial procedure was concluded which prohibits the importation of opium into United States ports by Chinese, or into Chinese ports by citizens of the United States, in vessels owned by citizens or subjects of either power, in foreign vessels employed by them, or in any vessels operated by others. It is also mutually and reciprocally agreed between the two countries that no duties, tolls, or imposts, be levied upon the ships or trade of the respective countries, other than are levied upon ships or trade of other foreign countries or upon the citizens of such countries. In cases of controversy between citizens of the United States and subjects of China, which call for judicial intervention, it is agreed that the presiding officer shall be of the nationality of the defendant. All privileges, courtesies, and facilities are to be accorded to the representative of the plaintiff, and protest will be permitted against any decision reached in the proceedings conducted according to the judicial procedure of the country of the presiding officer. Immigration.-The convention of 1894, regulating Chinese immigration, prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years, except in the case of the return of a registered Chinese laborer who had a lawful wife, child, or parent in the United Etates, or property therein worth one thousand dollars, or debts of that amount due to him or pending settlement. Such returning Chinese laborer must, before his departure from the United States, deposit with the collector of customs of his district a full description in writing of his family, his property, and his debts, as a condition precedent to his return. A false return in such cases shall prevent his return. In all such cases the return must be made within a period of one year, unless the time shall be extended by reason of sickness or valid disability, such extenuating facts being reported to the Chinese consul at the point of departure, and by him transmitted to the collector of the port at which he shall land in the United States. These prohibitory restrictions shall in nowise extend to teachers, students, merchants, or travelers for pleasure and curiosity, other than laborers, who must be provided with a certificate from their government or from the govern ment of the last place of residence, and properly viséd by the consular representative of the United States at the point of departure. Resident laborers in the United States shall have all rights, privileges, and Immunities enjoyed by others, except the right of naturalization, and their persons and property shall be protected by the government of the United States. The Chinese government agrees to the enforcement of the acts of 1892 and 1893, which require all resident Chinese laborers to be registered for the assurance of their better protection, and the United States recognizes the right of the Chinese government to enact similar legislation to apply to laborers of the United States within the Emperor's dominions. The government of the United States engages by this treaty to supply annually to the government of China a list of all citizens of the United States (other than the diplomatic corps) including missionaries, resident or traveling in China, together with the names, addresses, and full particulars of themselves and suites. The life of this treaty was ten years, with a renewal period of another ten years. Commercial. The treaty of 1903, on commercial relations, was made in further ex tension of the commercial Intercourse between the two countries. It confers upon the United States minister to China the right to reside at the city of Peking, to have audience with the Emperor whenever necessary to present his credentials or a message from the President, and to enjoy all the honors, prerogatives, and privileges of the representatives of the most favored nation. The authoritative texts of all documents shall be English for all documents from the United States, and Chinese for all documents from China. Freedom of intercourse with Chinese officials is granted to consular officers, such intercourse is restricted to the officials within their own jurisdiction. The extension of commercial freedom to citizens of the United States is again confirmed. The tax known as likin was abolished. This was a tax of one cash per tael imposed upon all sales throughout China as a war tax to meet the deficiency caused by the Tai-ping rebellion (18501864). In its place, the United States agreed to the imposition of a surtax, in addition to the current tariff rates on all foreign goods imported by citizens of the United States, and on Chinese produce intended for foreign export; this surtax never to exceed one and a half times the tariff established by the final protocol of China with the Powers, Sept. 7, 1901, and the total taxes of all kinds upon such goods must never exceed seven and a half per cent ad valorem. The likin collecting stations are abolished in all parts of the nineteen provinces of China and in three eastern provinces, but the customs stations within these districts are retained. The abolition of likin is further compensated for by a special surtax on foreign goods not to exceed one and a half times the five per cent import duty established by the protocol of 1901. It is permitted to the Chinese government to recast the foreign export tariff on a scale not exceeding five per cent ad valorem, and all existing tariff rates which exceed the last named limit are to be reduced. In place of all internal taxation of every kind, China may add an export duty of one half the existing rate as a special surtax, Provision is made within the treaty for the adjustment of all matters of controversy. Arbitration. In 1908 an arbitration convention was signed with China providing that all differences which may arise relating to the interpretation of treaties and which may be impossible to settle by, diplomacy shall be referred to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, provided they do not affect the vital Interests, the independence or the honor of the contracting parties. The establishment of bonded warehouses at the several open ports is provided for and permitted. China agrees to revise the mining regulations of the empire within one year, with a view to the encouragement of the investment of foreign capital in that industry. China agrees to establish a Patent Office and to permit and to protect the patenting of inventions by citizens of the United States. Copyright protection within certain limits is granted to citizens of the United States. The navig able inland waters of the Empire are opened to steam navigation by firms, companies, and individuals. Mukden and Antung, in the province of Sheng-king, are added to the list of open ports. China agrees to provide a uniform coinage throughout the Empire to be recognized as legal tender, though the payment of customs duties is to be made in terms of the Haikwan tael. The practice of the Christian religion is permitted with several privi China, Treaties with-Continued. Con In leges and certain restrictions upon missionaries. The United States agrees to help China remodel her judiciary upon western lines. China prohibits the importation of morphia and instruments for its injection, except for medicinal or surgical uses. ditions of the treaty of 1900 not at variance with the terms of this treaty are reaffirmed. A schedule of tariff duties upon imported goods is appended to the treaty. Chinese Immigration.-In 1844, under a treaty negotiated by Caleb Cushing, five Chinese ports were opened to American trade and protection of life and property was guaranteed American citizens. By the Burlingame treaty of 1868 the right of Chinese immigration was admitted, and the promise was made that the subjects of China should enjoy the same privileges, exemptions, and immunities respecting travel and residence in the United States as the subjects of the most favored nation. The Chinese came to this country in considerable numbers until their presence began to cause opposition on the Pacific Coast and agitation was begun for their exclusion. They were obnoxious to many Americans on account of their increasing numbers and their habits of life which rendered their assimilation with Americans impossible. 1879 after a Congressional investigation a bill restricting their immigration passed Congress but was vetoed by President Hayes (4466). The continued opposition to the Chinese, however, led to the framing of a new treaty with China in 1880. This treaty conceded to the Government of the United States the right to regulate, limit or suspend, but not absolutely to prohibit the coming of Chinese laborers, whenever their presence should be deemed injurious. Chinese students, teachers, merchants, and travelers were to be admitted freely as before. In 1882 an act was passed by Congress suspending the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. This act was amended several times in the direction of greater stringency. In 1892 the Geary Act was passed extending the operation of previous acts for ten years and providing that any Chinaman not lawfully entitled to remain in the United States should be removed to China and all Chinese laborers should be obliged to procure certificates of residence from the collector of internal revenue, failure to do so within a year to be followed by deportation. This act was modified considerably by a law passed in 1893. A new treaty was agreed upon by the United States and China in 1894 absolutely prohibiting the coming of Chinese laborers for ten years. This treaty, in accordance with the terms of one of its articles, was terminated by China at the expiration of the ten years' period, in December. 1904. By an act approved April 29, 1902, all laws in force prohibiting and regulating Chinese immigration were reenacted as far as not inconsistent with treaty obligations until otherwise provided by law, and their operation extended to the island territory of the United States. The number of Chinese in the United States. proper. as reported by the cersus of 1910 was 71,531, as compared with 89,863 in 1900, showing a decrease of 18,332 in the decade. Of the total number in 1910, 66,856 were males and 4,675 were females; 53 per cent of the males were single and 23 per cent of the women. More than onehalf resided in California. There were 760 farms operated by Chinese, of which 512 were in California, and only 57 were owned by Chinese, the others being worked by Chlnese cash tenants. Chinese Immigration: Act Regarding, vetoed, 4466, 4699. To execute certain treaty stipulations approved and discussed, 5215. Conventional regulation of passage of laborers across borders proposed to Mexico and Great Britain, 5544. Conventions regarding. (See Treaty regarding, post.) Discussed by President- Cleveland, 4914, 4968, 4975, 5083, 5194, 5215, 5868. Grant, 4242, 4309. Harrison, Benj., 5469, 5476, 5632. Roosevelt, 7008, 7010. Execution of acts regarding, referred to, 5495. Head tax collected from Chinamen entering Canada, 5476, 5632. Registration of Chinese laborers Extension of time for, 5838, 5868. Law regarding, sustained by Supreme Court, 5868. Reports on, referred to, 4973, 4975. Through Canada and Mexico, discussed, 5476, 5632. Treaty regarding, 4561, 4581, 5195, 5908, 5956. Discussed, 4629, 4823, 5194, 5386. Rejected by China discussed, 5367, 5386, 5387, 5469. Violation of laws, restricting, discussed and recommendations garding, 4762, 5632. re Chinese Indemnity.-In May, 1900, a secret society, known as the Boxers, arose in the provinces of Shan Tung and Pe-chi-Li, China, and massacred native Christians and European missionaries. In June the Boxers destroyed the Tien Tsin railway, isolating the foreigners in Peking, and shortly after murdered the German minister and the Japanese chancellor of legation. It was not until the middle of August that a relief force composed of 12.000 American, British, French, German, Russian and Japanese troops was enabled to rescue the besieged legations in Peking. The Empress Dowager and the court had fled, and it was impossible to apprehend the leaders in the antiforeign uprising. Peace negotiations were opened, and on Dec. 4, the Powers sent a joint note to the Chinese peace commissioners, demanding, among other things, the execution of the leaders in the massacre of foreigners and the payment of an indemnity: forbade the importation of arms and ammunition or the materials for their manufacture: the conversion of ad valorem into specific dutites, the improvement of certain rivers, prohibited Chinese membership in anti-foreign secret societies under pain of death, ordered the dismissal of governors who should hereafter permit anti-foreign agitation. A legation district in Peking which might be fortified and guarded was defined, and certain points were indicated that might be Chinese Indemnity-Continued. occupied by the foreign powers to keep communication open between the capital and the sea. In October, 1901, the amount of the indemnity was fixed at $735,000,000. Later, through the good offices of the United States, this was reduced to $387,500,000. The share of the United States in this indemnity was fixed at $24,440.778.81. In 1905 it was decided by the powers that this debt was payable in gold. The principal is payable in thirty-nine annual installments, ending in 1941. The interest, payable semiannually, at four per cent, is about $12,800,000; the securities for the indemnity are the maritime customs and the salt monopoly and the native customs or transit dues within sixteen miles of the ports. Payments are made monthly to a commission in Shanghai. In his seventh annual message to Congress, Dec. 3, 1907, President Roosevelt recommended the remission of a portion of the United States' allotment of this indemnity (7503). In accordance with this recommendation Congress passed a joint resolution which was approved May 25, 1908, reducing the total amount to $13,655.492.69, reserving $2,000.000 for the payment of future claims under the treaty and providing for their adjudication by the Court of Claims. This was done purely as an act of friendship toward China. Chinese Indemnity of 1900: Authority asked for cancelling part of, 7123. Chinese Loan.-The construction of extensive railway lines by the government, with the use of foreign capital and the granting of concessions to foreign companies to build railroads is opening up China to influences which the great Powers are not slow to avail themselves of. In June, 1908, work was begun on the Tien Tsin-Pukow railroad, about 700 miles long, connecting the imperial railways in North China with the German transverse line and extending to the Yangtse, opposite Nanking, and connecting three open ports. About $25,000,000 was borrowed to build this road. The road from Nanking to Shanghai, 196 miles, was opened in April, 1908. The entering wedge of American predominance in the awakening of China was securely put in place in Peking and the door of the Far East firmly opened to American capital, trade and governmental influence in August, 1909. This wedge takes the form of an allotment to New York bankers of one-fourth participation in a loan negotiated by the Chinese government for the construction of the Hankow-Szechuen Railway. This total amount of the loan is $30,000,000, of which $7.500.000 is to be taken by an American syndicate. The sum, so small for Wall Street, is truly a mere wedge, but the principle involved is considered of world-wide importance, opens the door for things far greater. and The Chinese Government gave assurance that Americans are to have equal opportunity to supply material for both the Canton and Szechuen lines with branches and to appoint subordinate engineers. They are to have one-half of all future loans on the Szechuen Railroad with corresponding advantages. For years Great Britain, France and Germany have been diplomatically struggling for the controlling influence over China when that vast country should have its awakening to western civilization and exploitation. They have manoeuvred every way to bring about conditions that might result in the partition of the empire in so that vast slices of its territory might fall into their imperialistic laps. A brief resumé of the indemnities exacted and loans made to pay the same follows: After the British had captured several ports in the opium war, in 1840, taken Ching-Kiang in a bloody assault, and threatened Nanking, a treaty was made with China, which, besides opening five ports to foreign trade and ceding the island of Hong Kong to England, exacted a war indemnity of $21,000,000. In 1856-1858 another expensive war was forced upon China by England and France, to end which China was compelled to pay the expenses of her conquerors. By the treaty of Shimonoseki, ending the war between China and Japan, in 1895, China agreed to pay an indemnity of 200,888,200 taels (about $160,000,000). This disclosure of China's weakness aroused the interest of European nations, and Russia, France and Germany, jealous of the growing influences of Japan, protested against the cession of the Liaotung peninsula to the latter country, and Russia, through the agency of France, placed a loan in 1895 amounting to $77,200,000 to enable China to meet the payments of the indemnity. In 1896 $80.000,000 was loaned by German and American capitalists, and in 1898 another $80,000,000 was advanced by the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, and the Deutsche-Asiatische Bank of English, German and American capital. In return for these loans valuable railway and trading concessions were exacted. with a view to establishing in the disintegrating empire spheres of influence which would serve as a pretext for military occupation should that become desirable. In 1907, Germany by way of reparation for the murder of two German missionaries, seized the port of Kiao-chau, on the Shantung peninsula, and obtained valuable mining, trading and railway privileges in the rich Shantung province. Early in 1898, while the British government was endeavoring to secure guarantees that the Yangtsekiang region should not be alienated, Russia obtained a lease of the harbors of Port Arthur and Talien Wan, in the Liao-tung peninsula, with railway concessions in the adjacent territory. As an offset Great Britain obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei for as long as Russia should retain Port Arthur. The United States Government has stood by China as her friend. John Hay, as Secretary of State, laid down the policy of this government as insisting on what was called the "open door," meaning thereby that all nations should stand on equal terms with China and that empire should not be exploited exclusively by any other nation to its own material advantage. This relatively insignificant railway loan proved to be the critical incident to bring to a focus the international diplomatic game that powerful nations have been playing, with the vast, unknown Flowery Kingdom as the most mangnificent spoils at stake since the days that Rome was annexing practically all the world to pay it tribute. Great Britain has been in the Chinese game with her gold. Germany has been working the military end, training and arming the Chinese soldiers. France had been let in as their helpful ally. The United States, standing for fair play, for the open door, for the best interests of China, was not to be let into the game. All the cards had been stacked for a three-handed deal, and this little loan, that practically marked the beginning of China's entrance on railway construction, and all the commercial progress to follow along the lines, Chinese Loan-Continued. was to be held closely between the three European countries. This was the situation when President Taft instructed the American Ambassadors in Europe and the Chargé d'Affaires in Peking to lodge a protest and to demand this country's participation in whatever affected the welfare of our peaceful ally across the Pacific. The affair at once was lifted above a mere financial transaction into the realms of international diplomacy. It was an unprecedented act for the Government at Washington to involve itself in the transactions of a group of private bankers, but President Taft held that the conditions warranted the move. The action of the Foreign Board indicates that the Chinese Government has turned toward America as its friend and believes in the disinterested policy of this country. Peking's announcement that the American share of the loan for constructing the Hankow-Szechuen Railway was allowed by the Foreign Board is most gratifying to the State Department, not that the amount involved is sufficient to justify a spirit of jubilance, but because the American victory is considered the triumph of a principle. During the summer of 1912 private fiscal agents of the Chinese Government secured pledges of a loan of sufficient size to tide the new Chinese Republic over the period of reorganization, without the aid of the so-called "six power" loan, and without submitting to the conditions of the powers. Chinese Loans, neutral adviser proposed by the United States, 7664. Chippewa Commission, report of, discussed, 5500. con Chippewa Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Chippewa Plains (Canada), Battle of.— On the morning of July 4, 1814, the entire American Army of the North advanced northward along the western bank of the Niagara River to a point near the mouth Here they were of the Chippewa. fronted by the British under Gen. Riall, who was reenforced during the night by On the King's regiment from Toronto. the afternoon and evening of the 5th a stubborn battle was fought. The British were defeated with a loss of 604. American loss was 335. Gen. Scott distinguished himself for bravery and efficiency. Gen. Riall was wounded and taken pris oner. The Chippewa Reservations in Wisconsin, disposition of timber on, 5566. Chippeway Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Chiriqui, Isthmus of, persons sent to, to make required examinations, referred to, 3192. Chisholm vs. Georgia.-In 1792 Alexander Chisholm, of South Carolina, brought suit in the Supreme Court of the United States against the State of Georgia for the payment of a private claim, Chisholm's counsel claiming that section 2 of Article III of the Constitution vested the court with jurisdiction in such cases. The court gave judgment to the plaintiff and issued a writ of inquiry, but the writ was never executed, the legislature of Georgia having passed an act making the execution of such a writ punishable by death. This case led to the adoption in 1798 of the eleventh amendment to the Constitution. Cho-bah-áh-bish Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Choctaw Coal and Railway Co., act authorizing Oklahoma City, Okla., to issue bonds to provide right of way for, vetoed, 5571. Choctaw Commission, proceedings of, referred to, 2129. Choctaw Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Choctaw Nation, Ind. T., right of way for railroads across lands of, 4653, 4655. Cholera (see also Contagious Diseases; International Sanitary Conference; Quarantine Regulations). Causes of, report on, referred to, 4259. International conference on subject of, at Rome, 4918. International conference to be held at Constantinople upon subject of, referred to, 3576. Representatives to foreign countries to report on progress, etc., of, appointed, 4898, 4902. Report of, referred to, 5565. Christian Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Christiana Case.-In 1851 Edward Gorsuch and a party from Maryland attempted to seize a fugitive slave in Christiana, Pa. A riot ensued in which Gorsuch was killed. Castner Hanway, an invalid Quaker, was arrested and charged with treason, riot, and bloodshed for refusing to assist a marshal in quelling the disturbance. No indictments were found, but the case created much excitement. Christians, massacre of. (See Armenians.) Chrystler's Fieids (Canada), Battle of. -Nov. 11, 1813, Gen Wilkinson, with the main body of the American army, here fought a slightly superior force of British. The battle lasted 5 hours, victory alternately favoring one and then the other. Night ended the conflict, with the British in possession of the field. The Americans lost heavily, many officers being either killed or wounded. American loss, 339; British loss, 17 killed, wounded, and missing. Chugach National Forest (Alaska): Opening to occupation by railroads of 12,800 acres of, discussed, 7599. Church and State.-The relation of the state to religious bodies in America differs from all previous relationships in Europe and the Colonies. Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland provided for religious freedom early in their respective histories. Most of the Colonies established the Church of England, though Massachusetts and Connecticut maintained the Congregational. The Constitution guarantees religious freedom in all parts of the United States. ticle VI. declares that "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." The first amendment provides that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." Ar Church of Latter-Day Saints. (See Mormon Church; Polygamy; and Utah.) Churches and Church Property. (See Religious Establishments.) Churubusco (Mexico), Battle of.-Churubusco was a strongly fortified place near the City of Mexico. The American army, in two divisions, under Generals Worth and Twiggs, attacked the Mexicans under Gen. Santa Anna, Aug. 20, 1847, a few hours after the action at Contreras. The Americans numbered 8,000 and the Mexicans 25,000. Early in the engagement the garrison at San Antonio was routed. The hottest fighting took place along the Rio Churubusco, where for some time the Americans were threatened with defeat, but rallying they drove the Mexicans before them. Simultaneously were taken the tête-du-pont, or bridgehead (the key to Santa Anna's position), and the Pablo de Churubusco. The conflict lasted three hours. Including the casualties, the Mexican loss was 5,877. The Americans lost 1,015. Churubusco (Mexico), Battle of, referred to, 2386. Cimarron.-The name originally proposed for the northwestern part of Indian Territory, now Beaver County, Oklahoma. The strip of land lying between 36° 30' and 37° north latitude and 100° and 103° west longitude was ceded by Texas to the United States in 1850. The name Cimarron is Spanish for "wild," and was applied to a tributary of the Arkansas River which had its source in the country. The strip was sometimes called "No Man's Land." Since between the years 1850, when it was added to the United States, and 1890, when it was made a part of Oklahoma, it was under no form of government and the resort chiefly of outlaws. Recently settlers from Kansas and Colorado have removed thither and taken up their abode. Cincinnati Industrial Exposition, board on behalf of Executive Departments designated, 4819. Instructions to, 4820. Cincinnati, Society of the.-A society originated in 1783 by Revolutionary officers. At the second general meeting in 1787 Washington was chosen president-general and was reelected every three years while 'he lived. The membership rolls were open only to the officers and their eldest sons, though a number of French officers were included. The hereditary principle aroused popular jealousy. It was denounced by the Governor of South Carolina and the legislatures of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. In 1784, at the solicitation of Washington, the society dropped the requirement of heredity, but the principle has since been reestablished and full membership is restricted to those having the hereditary right. A few distinguished men are admitted to honorary membership, but the number is strictly limited. President Monroe was an original member and President Pierce was a hereditary member. Presidents Jackson, Taylor, Pierce, Buchanan, Grant, Benjamin Harrison, Cleveland, McKinley, Roosevelt and Taft were made honorary members, as were exPresident Loubet of France, and Admiral Dewey, Lieutenant-Generals Miles and Chaffee. The chief immediate objects of the socl ety were to raise a fund for the relief of the widows and orphans of those who fell in the Revolutionary War and to promote a closer political union between the states. The number of living hereditary members of the Society of the Cincinnati as reported at the Triennial meeting in Newport, R. I., in June, 1911, was 981. Cipher Dispatches.-The result of the presidential election of 1876 was for several months in doubt. During this period of uncertainty numerous telegraphic dispatches passed between the friends of Samuel J. Tilden, Democratic candidate for the presidency. The dispatches were in cipher and purported to be instructions to party workers in South Carolina, Oregon and Florida. Charges of fraud having been made these dispatches were ordered turned over to the Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections. A large number of them came into the possession of the New York "Tribune," which caused a sensation by publishing transcripts of them. Mr. Tilden in a letter emphatically denied all knowledge of them. Citizens of United States: Aid furnished Cubans by, 6284. Militia called forth to protect, 1620. Captured by army of Mexico, 1944, 2010. Liberated, 2050. Claims of, against Foreign Powers. (See the several Powers.) United States. (See Private Condemned to death in Cuba, 4690. Colombia, order for transportation Emigration of, to Turkey for purpose Jurisdiction of Mexico, 2180, 2198, Forbidden to sell goods in Mexico, 2115. Illegally taken from United States by the English, 485. Impressed into military service of foreign countries. (See Naturalized Citizens.) Imprisonment of, abroad. (See Imprisonment.) Imprisonment of, by army officers referred to, 4009. Injuries inflicted upon, in Turkey discussed, 6090, 6147. Injuries sustained by, in Mexico, 2869, 3043, 3094, 4143. |