Are. The present tense, plural, of the Verb to be, was first introduced into England by the Danes. It is of Scandinavian origin. In some provincial dialects—in Cornwall and Devon, for instance-be is now very frequently used in the plural, as "Where be you going?"

Dare. This Verb takes the infinitive without "to" as a direct object, but the infinitive with "to" as an indirect object, e.g.,

"I dare do all that doth become a man (direct);

"I dare you to do it" (indirect).

=

Meseems and methinks it seems to me,—and these words should be substituted in parsing. These forms were at one time commonly used, but they are now almost obsolete. Seems and thinks are here strictly Impersonal Verbs.

Quoth. From the Anglo-Saxon cwethan, to say; is now almost obsolete.

To wit.-This defective Verb is now almost obsolete. It means to know. Present Tense, I wot; Past-Imperfect, I wist. Shakespeare uses a participle wotting; but as the Anglo-Saxon form is witende, and the Old English wittande, this form, wotting, can scarcely be regarded as a legitimate formation.

THE ADJECTIVE.

I. Remarks on the Classes of Adjectives.

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$(46) Pupils have frequently considerable difficulty in determining whether or not a word is an Adjective, because they are perplexed by the different definitions of the term Adjective " which are given in different text-books. Some grammarians recognise as Adjectives what others would regard as Pronouns. Everything depends upon the definition of the term. Having once defined an Adjective, we must be careful to see that every word which we call an Adjective comes within the scope of our definition.

C

A definition often given is, "An Adjective is a word which qualifies a Noun." This definition is objectionable, because a Noun is a word which can not be said to have any quality; it is that for which the Noun stands which possesses the quality. The error of confounding a word with what the word denotes is very prevalent, and should be carefully guarded against. The different meanings given to the word qualify are perplexing. Sometimes it is used

in the sense of denoting a quality, and sometimes in the wider sense of affecting the meaning of the Noun. If the word be used at all, it should be clearly understood what it is intended to signify.

§(47) An Adjective is a word added to a Noun, to denote some quality or fact connected in thought with that for which the Noun stands.

The following is a simple classification of the Adjectives. I. Proper Adjectives, such as,

English, French, Spanish.

II. Adjectives of Quality, as,—

Wise, good, sober, religious.

III. Numeral Adjectives, including,—

(a) Definite Numerals,—

(1) Cardinal: one, two, three, four, &c.

(2) Ordinal: first, second, third, fourth, &c. (b) Indefinite Numerals, as,-several, few, many, some, all, both, &c.

(c) Distributive Numerals, as,-each, every, either,

neither.

IV. Demonstrative Adjectives, as,—

The, this, that, these, those, and yon.

§(48) Remarks on Individual Adjectives.

The

Each and either.-Either relates to one of two. early form of the comparative suffix was ter or ther; it signified one of two, and is still to be found in a few words which denote quality, such as whether, neither, farther.

Each has reference to any number of objects, but when compounded with other, in each other, it relates to any number of objects taken two together. In other there is a trace of the comparative suffix.

Each and every.-Both these words have reference to a collection of individuals. The prominent idea when each is used is the multitude of the units, and when every is used the prominent idea is the unity of the multitude.

All and several.- Both these words relate to a number of objects; but all relates to them taken collectively, whereas several involves the idea of separation. This meaning of several is clearly seen in legal language, e.g., "A joint and several estate," that is, separate estate.

II. Remarks on the Degrees of Comparison. §(49) For definitions of the degrees of comparison, see Hughes's Practical Grammar," also see the same for a list of the Adjectives compared irregularly.

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Remarks on Anomalous forms.

Better is formed from the Anglo-Saxon bet, meaning good. The Anglo-Saxon comparative suffix was re, which has now become er.

Best is contracted from the Anglo-Saxon bet-est, bet-st.

Worse. The termination se in this word was an older form of the comparative termination re. Weor was the Anglo-Saxon word for bad.

Rather is the comparative of rathe, meaning early, which is now obsolete.

Farther is the comparative of far. The th has crept into the word from a false analogy with further, the comparative of forth, which is an Adverb.

Much, more, most, refer to quantity.

Many, more, most, refer to number.

The root of these words is mag. Mo-re is the Anglo-Saxon ma-re (mag-re), and mo-st the Anglo-Saxon mæst (mag-est).

Many has no connection with the root mag, it comes from the Anglo-Saxon man-ig.

Last,- -a contraction of lat-est: compare bet-est.

Nigh, near, next.

Near, nearer, nearest.

The correct forms are nigh, near,

next. So we see that nearer

is, in reality, a double comparative, a comparative formed from a comparative.

Lesser is formed from the comparative form less, and is, in reality, a double comparative.

Elder and eldest are now only used with reference to living things. The full comparative force of elder is lost : the word is never followed by than, which follows every other comparative.

Former.-In Anglo-Saxon there were two superlative terminations, ema, and est or ost. The m in former is the superlative termination; and, in Old English, forma signified first; the word was the superlative of the root fore. We see, then, that former is a comparative formed from a superlative.

Foremost. The suffix most in this word is not the ordinary Adjective most, it is compounded from the two superlative terminations given above, namely, ema and est or ost. In reality, then, there are two superlative terminations in foremost, and the word is therefore a double superlative.

Other words in which this double superlative is found,

are,

Utmost, innermost, outermost, hindmost, &c.

In inn-er-m-ost, out-er-m-ost, and utt-er-m-ost a double superlative is formed from a comparative.

Distinction between "farther” and “further.”

Farther, as we have already said, is the comparative of far; it is strictly an Adjective, and is applied to the more distant of two objects, as,—

"Lancaster is farther from London than Manchester."

Further, the comparative of forth, denotes movement in advance, as,―

"The ship moves further on."

THE ADVERB.

I.-Remarks on the Classes of Adverbs. $(50) Adverbs are variously classified.

(a) Generally according to the ideas of time, place, manner, degree, &c., which they indicate.

(b) Sometimes according to the nature of their work in. the construction of sentences.

(1) Simple.-Those which simply modify the meaning of some other word.

(2) Relative or Connective.-Those which, in addition to modifying the meaning of some other word, join and relate one sentence to another.

Relative Adverbs resemble, in their nature, to some extent, Relative Pronouns. A word bearing the same sort of relation to Adverbs of this class as the antecedent does to the Relative Pronoun, may always be expressed, although it is generally understood, as,

'I shall be glad to see you when you can call upon me;" that is,

"I shall be glad to see you then (at the time) when you can call upon me."

Other Adverbs of this class, are,—

Whenever, where, while, whither, whence, wherein, whereby, &c.

§ (51) Although an Adverb is frequently defined to be a word which modifies a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb, it will be found that often the Adverb does not modify the meaning of any individual word, but gives to the sentence which it introduces an adverbial force, which sentence modifies the meaning of the Verb in the sentence to which it is subjoined, or on which it is dependent, as,— "I hate you because you do not tell the truth."

In this sentence, because would be regarded by many as a Conjunction, but regarding it as a Relative Adverb it does not modify any individual word, but gives the sentence