which it introduces an adverbial force, making it an adverbial sentence, which modifies the Verb hate in the principal sentence.

It will be found also that an Adverb may modify the meaning of other individual words in addition to those belonging to the classes mentioned in the above definition. For instance, in the sentence,

"His house is immediately over mine;"

over is a Preposition, and is modified by the Adverb immediately. Similarly, far in the phrase,—

"Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife,"

modifies the Preposition from.

Some grammarians even maintain that Adverbs modify Nouns and Pronouns, as in the sentences,

"I shall dismiss all attempts to please, while I study only instruction" (Noun).

"Yours most affectionately" (Pronoun).

"He only was saved" (Pronoun).

(See "The Elements of the English Language," by Adams, § 387).

§ (52) The proper use of the Adverbs,—

66

Here, hither, hence; where, whither, whence; there, thither, thence "

is often neglected. For instance, instead of saying,

"Whence do you come?"

the more ungainly expression,

is mostly used.

"Where do you come from?"

The proper use of these Adverbs and their meanings will be seen from the following,—

Here, means " in this place;" hither, “to this place;" hence, "from this place.”

Where,

There,

"in what place;" whither," to what place;" whence “from what place.”

"in that place;" thither, "to that place;" thence "from that place.” The Adverbs hither, hence, thither, thence, whither, whence, are Adverbs of Direction.

The Adverbs, yes and yea, are usually called Adverbs of Affirmation; no, nay, and not are usually called Adverbs of Negation.

Whereby, wherein, and similar Adverbs are sometimes called Pronominal Adverbs, being equivalent to a Preposition and a Pronoun,

§ (53) (1) Some of the most common-place expressions, such as, "Go home;" "The loaf weighs six pounds; "The river is sixty feet wide" present considerable difficulty to young students in parsing.

The difficult words in the above sentences are home, pounds, and feet.

Now it is evident that each of these words has an adverbial force. Home denotes place where; six pounds denotes how heavy the loaf weighs; and sixty feet denotes how wide the river is. The Verbs in each of the sentences are intransitive, and, therefore, although home and pounds seem to occupy the place of objects, they are not in the objective case governed by the Verbs which they follow. These words, as we have already said, have an adverbial force; but as they are, at the same time, evidently Nouns, and seem to occupy the place of objects, they are parsed as adverbial objects, limiting the Verbs which they follow, thus,

home

pounds

Noun common, neuter, singular, 3rd, adverbial

object, limiting go.

Noun common, neuter, plural, 3rd, abverbial object, limiting weighs.

Feet, in the sentence above given, is parsed exactly in the same way—

feet Noun common, neuter, plural, 3rd, adverbial object, limiting is wide.

Similarly in the sentences," John swam six miles ; "I was travelling six months;" miles and months are abverbial objects, limiting the Verbs they follow.

From the above examples we see that it is Verbs denoting time, space, weight, measurement, &c., which take abverbial objects after them.

In the sentence, "The river is sixty feet wide," the assertion which is made is, that the river is wide. How wide? sixty feet: so that the words sixty feet limit is wide.

This sentence would be analysed as follows:

"There

(2) The Adverb there in its usual sense has reference to place, but in the sentences, "There was, &c.;" "There is, &c." it has a different meaning. When we say, are many men who do not know their letters," we mean that "Many men are in existence who do not know their letters."

Again, "There never was anything so beautiful as that flower," means that "Anything so beautiful as that flower never existed," or "never was in being."

The word would be parsed as an "Adverb, equivalent to in existence, forming the predicate with the Verb was, a Verb of incomplete predication."

(3) In such phrases as, "The more the merrier," the is not the same word as the Article the; it is an Adverb of Degree. The phrase might be rendered, "By how much more, by so much the merrier."

(4) Passing, in such sentences as, "It is passing strange," is equivalent in meaning to beyond: "It is beyond what is strange." Although passing is here an Adverb, it was originally a participle; and in such a construction would govern the Noun sentence, "What is strange," just as the Preposition beyond does when substituted for it.

Similar remarks may be made respecting exceeding, in such phrases as "Exceeding great;" "Exceeding glad."

III. Remarks on Comparison.

§ (54) Adverbs, as a rule, have no inflection; in a few instances, however, Adverbs are, like Adjectives, inflected for comparison, thus,—

Other Adverbs are compared, like Adjectives, by prefixing more and most, or less and least.

THE PRONOUN.

Remarks on certain Classes of Pronouns. § (55) Personal Pronouns are simple substitutes for the names of persons or things.

Pronouns of this class are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. The Simple Personal Pronouns are, I, thou, he, she, and it, with their different forms for number and case. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed from the Simple by the addition of the particles self, plural selves, and own.

Self is added to the possessive case of Pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, and to the objective case of Pronouns of the 3rd person.

Own is added to the possessive case of Pronouns of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person.

The force of these particles when added to the Simple Pronouns is to strengthen their meaning, or make them emphatic.

Pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person have no changes of form to express gender, neither have the Pronouns of the 3rd person plural; but those of the 3rd person singular have changes for that purpose.

§ (56) In the declension of the Personal Pronoun, thou is always given as the 2nd person singular, but custom has set aside the rules of grammar in this case; and though we, in particular cases, still make use of thou and thee, we generally make use of you instead of either of them. According to ancient rule and custom, this is not correct; but what a whole people adopts, and universally practises, must, in such cases, be deemed correct, and to be a superseding of ancient rule and custom.

You, although used in addressing one individual, always takes a Verb in the plural number. It was first used as a singular in the 13th century.

Ye, which is now rarely used except in poetry, is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ge, which was the nominative form. By old English writers this was always used as the nominative, and you as the accusative, e.g.,—

"I know you not, whence ye are " (Bible).

Later writers, however, confused the two, and we find them used indiscriminately in the nominative and objective.

$(57) Relative Pronouns, in addition to being substitutes for the names of persons or things, may also refer to Pronouns which have been already used, and they relate sentences.

The Pronouns belonging to this class are,

Who, which, that, and what,

with the compounds of the two former and what with ever; and sometimes as and but.

Who is used with reference to persons, which and that with reference to irrational creatures and things. This application of the relative which solely to irrational creatures is, however, of modern date, for in the Lord's Prayer we say, "Our Father, which art in heaven." In the American Liturgy this error has been corrected, and they say "Our Father, who art in heaven."

The force of ever, when added to Pronouns of this class, is to give them a wider signification.