the culture being Jicaltepec in the vicinity of Nautla.1 Vanilla is likewise obtained on the western declivity of the Cordilleras in the State of Oaxaca, and in lesser quantity in those of Tabasco, Chiapas, and Yucatan. The eastern parts of Mexico exported in 1864, by way of Vera Cruz and Tampico, about 20,000 kilo. of vanilla, chiefly to Bordeaux. Since then, the production seems to have much declined, the importation into France having been only 6869 kilo in 1871, and 1938 in 1872.2

The cultivation of vanilla in the small French colony of Réunion or Bourbon (40 miles long by 27 miles broad), introduced by Marchant in 1817 from Mauritius, has of late been very successful, notwithstanding many difficulties occasioned by the severe cyclones which sweep periodically over the island; in 1871, the quantity exported was 39,200 b.3 The neighbouring island of Mauritius also produces vanilla, of which it shipped in 1872, 7139 m. There is likewise a very extensive cultivation of vanilla in Java.

Vanilla comes into the market chiefly by way of France, which country, according to the official statistics just quoted, imported in 1871, 29,914 kilo. (65,981 b.); in 1872, 26,587 kilo. (58,643 lb.) Of the lastnamed quantity, only about half was retained for home consumption.

Uses-Vanilla has long ceased to be used in medicine, at least in this country, but is often sold by druggists for flavouring chocolate, ices, creams, and confectionary.

IRIDACEÆ.

RHIZOMA IRIDIS.

Radix Iridis Florentina; Orris Root; F. Racine d'Iris ; G. Veilchenwurzel.

Botanical Origin-This drug is derived from three species of Iris, namely:

1. Iris Germanica L., a perennial plant with beautiful large deep blue flowers, common about Florence and Lucca, ascending to the region of the chestnut. It is also found dispersed throughout Central and Southern Europe, and in Northern India and Morocco; and is one of the commonest plants of the gardens round London, where it is known as the Blue Flag.

2. I. pallida Lam., a plant resembling the preceding, but with flowers of a delicate pale blue, growing wild in stony places in Istria. It is abundant about Florence and Lucca in the region of the olive, but is a doubtful native.

3. I. Florentina L., a species bearing large white flowers, indigenous to the coast region of Macedonia and the south-western shores of the

1 Culture du vanillier au Mexique, in the Revue Coloniale, ii. (1849) 383-390.

Documents Statistiques réunis par l'Administration des Douanes sur le Commerce de la France, année 1872, p. 61.

3 Consul Segrave of Réunion in the Consular Reports, presented to Parliament, Aug. 1872.

4 Mauritius Blue Book for the year 1972.

Black Sea, Hersek in the Gulf of Ismid, and about Adalia in Asia Minor. It also occurs in the neighbourhood of Florence and Lucca, but in our opinion only as a naturalized plant.1

These three species, but especially I. Germanica and I. pallida, are cultivated for the production of orris root in the neighbourhood of Florence. They are planted on the edges of terraces and on waste, stony places contiguous to cultivated ground. I. Florentina is seldom found beyond the precincts of villas, and is far less common than the other two.

3

History-In ancient Greece and Rome, orris root was largely used in perfumery; and Macedonia, Elis, and Corinth were famous for their unguents of iris.2 Theophrastus and Dioscorides were well acquainted with orris root; the latter, as well as Pliny, remarks that the best comes from Illyricum, the next from Macedonia, and a sort still inferior from Libya; and that the root is used as a perfume and medicine. Visiani 3 considers that Iris Germanica is the Illyrian iris of the ancients, which is highly probable, seeing that throughout Dalmatia (the ancient Illyricum) that species is plentiful, and I. Florentina and I. pallida do not occur. At what period the two latter were introduced into Northern Italy we have no direct evidence, but it was probably in the early middle ages. The ancient arms of Florence, a white lily or iris on a red shield, seem to indicate that that city was famed for the growth of these plants. Petrus de Crescentiis of Bologna, who flourished in the 13th century, mentions the cultivation of the white as well as of the purple iris, and states at what season the root should be collected for medicinal use.

But the true Illyrian drug was held to be the best; and Valerius Cordus (ob. 1544) laments that it was being displaced by the Florentine, though it might easily be obtained through the Venetians.

Orris root mixed with anise was used in England as a perfume for linen as early as 1480 (p. 277), under which date it is mentioned in the Wardrobe Accounts of Edward IV.

All the species of iris we have named were in cultivation in England in the time of Gerarde,—that is, the latter end of the 16th century. The starch of the rhizome was formerly reckoned medicinal, and directions for its preparation are to be found in the Traicté de la Chymie of Le Febvre, published in 1660.

Production-The above-mentioned species of iris are known to the Tuscan peasantry by the one name of Giaggiolo. The rhizomes are collected indiscriminately, the chief quantity being doubtless furnished by the two more plentiful species, I. Germanica and I. pallida. They are dug up in August, are then peeled, trimmed, and laid out in the sunshine to dry, the larger bits cut off being reserved for replanting. At the establishment

1 From observations made at Florence in the spring of 1872, I am led to regard the three species here named as quite distinct. The following comparative characters are perhaps worth recording :

:

I. Germanica-flower-stem scarcely 1 times as tall as leaves; flowers more crowded than in I. pallida, varying in depth of colour but never pale blue.

I. pallida bracts brown and scariose; flower-stem twice as high as leaves.

I. Florentina-bracts green and fleshy; flower-stem short as in I. Germanica; is a more tender plant than the other two and blossoms a little later.-D. H.

2 For further information, consult Blümner, Die gewerbliche Thätigkeit der Völker des klassischen Alterthums, 1869. 57. 76. 83. 3 Flora Dalmatica, i. (1842) 116. 4 De omnibus agriculturæ partibus, Basil. 1548. 219.

Dispensatorium, Norimb, 1529. 288.

of Count Strozzi, founded in 1806 at Pontasieve near Florence, which lies in the midst of the orris district, the rhizomes, collected from the peasants by itinerant dealers, are separated into different qualities, as selected (scelti) and sorts (in sorte), and are ultimately offered in trade either entire, or in small bits (frantumi), parings (raspature), powder (polvere di giaggiolo o d' ireos), or manufactured into orris peas.

The growing of orris is only a small branch of industry, the crops being a sort of side-product, but it is nevertheless shared between the tenant and landowner as is usual on the Tuscan system of husbandry.1

Description-The rootstock is fleshy, jointed and branching, creeping horizontally near the surface of the ground. It is formed in old plants of the annual joints of five or six successive years, the oldest of which are evidently in a state of decay. These joints are mostly dichotomous, subcylindrical, a little compressed vertically, gradually becoming obconical, and attaining a maximum size when about three years old. They are 3 to 4 inches long and sometimes more than 2 inches thick. Those only of the current year emit leaves from their extremities. The rhizome is externally yellowish-brown, internally white and juicy, with an earthy smell and acrid taste. By drying, it gradually acquires its pleasant violet odour, but it is said not to attain its maximum of fragrance until it has been kept for two years.

We have carefully compared with each other the fresh rhizomes of the three species under notice, but are not able to point out any definite character for distinguishing them apart.

Dried orris root as found in the shops, occurs in pieces of 2 to 4 inches long, and often as much as 14 inches wide. A full-sized piece is seen to consist of an elongated, irregularly subconical portion emitting at its broader end one or two (rarely three) branches which, having been cut short in the process of trimming, have the form of short, broad cones, attached by their apices to the parent rootstock. The rootstock is flattened, somewhat arched, often contorted, shrunken and furrowed. The lower side is marked with small circular scars, indicating the point of insertion of rootlets. The brown outer bark has been usually entirely removed by peeling and paring; and the dried rhizome is of a dull, opaque white, ponderous, firm and compact. It has an agreeable and delicate odour of violets, and a bitterish, rather aromatic taste, with subsequent acridity.

A sort of orris root which has been dried without the removal of the outer peel, is found under the name of Irisa in the Indian bazaars, and now and then in the London market. It is, we suppose, the produce of Iris Germanica L. (I. Nepalensis Wall.), which according to Hooker, is cultivated in Kashmír. Orris root of rather low quality is now often imported from Morocco; it is obtained, we believe, exclusively from I. Germanica.

Microscopic Structure-On transverse section, the white bark about 2 mm. broad, is seen to be separated by a fine brown line from the faintly yellowish woody tissue. The latter is traversed by numerous vascular bundles, in diffuse and irregular rings, and exhibits here and there small shining crystals of oxalate of calcium. It is

1 Groves, Pharm. Journ. Sept. 21, 1872. 229.-We have also to thank him for infor mation communicated personally.

made up uniformly of large thick-walled spherical porous cells, loaded with starch granules, which are oval, rather large and very numerous; prisms of calcium oxalate are also visible. The spiral vessels are small and run in very various directions. The foregoing description is applicable to any one of the three species we have named.

Chemical Composition-When orris root is distilled with water, a solid crystalline substance, called Orris Camphor, is found floating on the aqueous distillate. This substance, which we obtained from the laboratory of Messrs. Herrings & Co. of London, is yielded, as we learn from Mr. Umney, to the extent of 0.12 per cent.-that is to say, 3 cwt. 3 qrs. 23 lb. of rhizome afforded of it 8 ounces.1 We have purified it by means of charcoal, and recrystallization from dilute alcohol, when we finally got it in very light voluminous scales, which fuse at 51.5° C., but do not volatilize to any considerable extent even at 150°. These crystals we found to contain on an average of three analyses, carbon 73.96, and hydrogen 12-26 per cent. This leads to the formula C14H28O2, which is that of Myristic Acid (see p. 455). The crystals have an acid reaction; they are easily soluble in caustic alkali, and are again separated by an acid-in fact, we believe them to be simply myristic acid, impregnated with a little essential oil which they obstinately retain. The results obtained by Dumas in 1835, do not accord with ours.

By exhausting orris root with spirit of wine, a soft brownish resin is obtained, together with a little tannic matter. The resin has a slightly acrid taste; the tannin strikes a green colour with persalts of iron. Commerce-Orris root is shipped, from Leghorn, Trieste and Mogador, from the last-named port, to the extent in 1872 of 456 cwt.2 There are no data to show the total imports into Great Britain. France imported in the year 1870, about 50 tons of orris

root.

Uses-Frequently employed as an ingredient in tooth-powders, and in France for making issue-peas; but the chief application is as a perfume.

CROCUS.

3

Croci stigmata; Saffron; F. and G. Safran.

Botanical Origin-Crocus sativus L., a small plant with a fleshy, bulb-like corm and grassy leaves, much resembling the common Spring Crocus of the gardens, but blossoming in the autumn. It has an elegant purple flower, with a large orange-red stigma, the three pendulous divisions of which are protruded beyond the perianth.

The Saffron Crocus is supposed to be indigenous to Greece, Asia Minor, and perhaps Persia, but it has been so long under cultivation in the East that its primitive home is somewhat doubtful.*

1 The produce of some previous operations, in which 23 cwt. of orris were distilled, afforded but little over one-tenth per cent. 2 Consular Reports, Aug. 1873. 917. 3 The word Saffron is derived from the Arabic Asfar, yellow.

4

Chappellier has pointed out that Crocus sativus L. is unknown in a wild state, and that it hardly ever produces seed even though artificially fertilized; and has argued from these facts that it is probably a hybrid.-Bulletin de la Soc. bot. de France, XX. (1873) 191.

History-Saffron, either as a medicine, condiment, perfume, or dye, has been highly prized by mankind from a remote period, and has played an important part in the history of commerce.

Under the Hebrew name Carcôm, which is supposed to be the root of the word Crocus, the plant is alluded to by Solomon; and as Kpókos, by Homer, Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Theocritus. Virgil and Columella mention the saffron of Mount Tmolus; the latter also names that of Corycus in Cilicia, and of Sicily, both which localities are alluded to as celebrated for the drug by Dioscorides and Pliny.

Saffron was an article of traffic on the Red Sea in the first century; and the author of the Periplus remarks that Kpókos is exported from Egypt to Southern Arabia, and from Barygaza in the gulf of Cambay.

It was cultivated at Derbend and Ispahan in Persia, and in Transoxania in the 10th century, whence it is not improbable the plant was carried to China, for according to the Chinese it came thither from the country of the Mahommedans. Chinese writers have recorded that under the Yuen dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368), it became the custom to mix Sa-fa-lang (Saffron) with food.1

There is evidence to show that saffron was a cultivated production of Spain as early as A.D. 961; yet it is not so mentioned, but only as an eastern drug, by St. Isidore, archbishop of Seville in the 7th century. As to France, Italy, and Germany, it is commonly said that the saffron crocus was introduced into these countries by the Crusaders. Porchaires, a French nobleman, is stated to have brought some bulbs to Avignon towards the end of the 14th century, and to have commenced the cultivation in the Comtat Venaissin, where it existed down to recent times. About the same time, the growing of saffron is said to have been introduced by the same person into the district of Gâtinais, south of Paris. At that period, saffron was one of the productions of Cyprus, with which island France was then, through the princes of Lusignan, particularly related.

During the middle ages, the saffron cultivated at San Gemignano in Tuscany was an important article of exportation to Genoa. That of Aquila in the kingdom of Naples was also famous, and was still distinguished in price-lists at the beginning of the present century. The growing of saffron in Sicily which was noticed even by Columella, is carried on to the present day, but the quantity produced is insufficient even for home consumption. In Germany and Switzerland, where a more rigorous climate must have increased the difficulties of cultivation, the production of saffron was an object of industry in many localities.10 The saffron crocus is said to have been introduced into England during the reign of Edward III. (A.D. 1327–1377)." Two centuries

1 Canticles, ch. iv. 14.

2 Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, iii. (1857) 52.

3 Istachri, Buch der Länder, übersetzt von Mordtmann, 87. 93. 124. 126; Edrisi, Géographie, trad. par Jaubert, 168. 192.

* Bretschneider, Chinese Botanical Works, Foochow, 1870. 15.

5 Le Calendrier de Cordoue de l'année 961, Leyde, 1873. 33. 109.

6 Conrad et Waldmann, Traité du Safran du Gâtinais, Paris, 1846.

7 De Mas Latrie, Hist. de l'ile de Chypre, iii. 498.

8

Bourquelot, Foires de la Champagne, Mém. de l'Acad. des inscript. et belles-lettres de l'Institut, v. (1865) 286.

9 Inzenga, in Annali di Agricoltura Siciliana, i. (1851) 51.

10 Tragus, De Stirpium, etc. 1552. p. 763; Ochs, Geschichte der Stadt und Landschaft Basel, iii. (1819) 189.

11 Morant, Hist. and Antiq. of Esser, i (1768) 545.