DIALECT in his (apparent) motion round the earth in 24 hours will pass from one meridian to another in one hour, and cause the shadow of the axis to fall on the hour on the plane D C B A. This diagram has been drawn for the latitude of Glasgow, 55° 52', and the plane in its present position would form a horizontal dial for that place; but we may suppose it capable of moving round its axis A C, so as to assume different ? 10 11 12 positions in the sphere. If it move round so as to become vertical, that is, at right angles to its position in the figure, we then obtain an erect south dial. The plane may also be made to incline from the meridian either toward the east or west. Thus we have dials of different kinds dependent on the position of the plane with regard to the first meridian, the position of the hour lines of which are all determined by the meridians of the sphere cutting the plane. We have been considering the earth as the sphere, in our illustration of the nature of dials, but the earth's magnitude is so small compared with the distance of the sun, that no sensible error will follow in considering a small glass sphere similar to that above described, but placed on the surface of the earth with its axis parallel to that of the earth; then will the sphere show the hour of the day in the manner before specified. The only things absolutely essential for a dial are the axis and the plane, the places of the hour lines having been once determined. Dials may have various forms, many of which are exceedingly curious and intricate, and require for their construction the application of complicated trigonometrical formula. We shall confine our attention here to the most commcn, and, at the same time, most useful form, that is, the plane horizontal dial. On the proposed plane, which may be either of marble, slate, or brass, draw the straight line P H S for the meridian or 12 o'clock line, and parallel to this draw 12, h S, leaving a space between them equal to the thickness of the gnomon. The gnomon is a thin triangular plate of metal, somewhat similar in shape to the figure A E B, the side A B being fixed into the plate of the dial, so that the gnomon shall stand perpendicularly, the line A E being directly north E and south. The line A E is called the style, and the angle E A B is equal to the latitude of the place for which the dial is constructed. We return again to the consideration of Fig. 2. Draw 6 H 6 perpendicular to 12 H S, and it will be the 6 o'clock hour line; make the angle 12 H F equal to the latitude of place, and draw 12 F perpendicular to H F; continue S 12 to P, making 12 P equal to 12 F. The line 12 1 2 3 4 is drawn parallel to the line 6 H 6. From the point P draw the lines P 1, P 2, P 3, etc., terminating in the line 12 1 2 3 4, making angles with the line 12 P at the point P of 15°, 30°, 45°, etc., increasing by 15 degrees each line. Next from the centre H draw the lines H 1, H 2, H 3, etc., and thus the hour lines of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 P. M. will be found. The hour lines on the other side of the style should now be formed by taking a tracing of the side already formed; the hours are of course numbered differently, and both sides will stand thus, the hour line of both sides corresponding: I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, II, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Here we have carried the hours beyond 6, which was the extent of the construction; but to find the hour lines for 4 and 5 in the morning we have only to produce the hour lines of 4 and 5 in the evening, and in like manner for the hour lines of 7 and 8 in the afternoon, produce the hour lines of 7 and 8 in the morning. The dial gives solar time, and, therefore, the time, according to it, will only agree four days in the year with a well-regulated clock. See EQUATION OF TIME. The sun-dial is daily getting more rare in this age; but notwithstanding the superiority of the clock, why has the dial almost everywhere vanished? "If its business use," as has been well observed, "be superseded by more elaborate inventions, its moral use, its beauty, might have pleaded for its continuance. It spoke of moderate labors of pleasures not protracted after sunset-of temperance and good hours. It was the primitive clock -the horologe of the first world. Adam could scarce have missed it in paradise. It was the measure appropriated for sweet plants and flowers to spring by - for the birds to apportion their silver warblings by for flocks to pasture and be led to fold by. The shepherd carved it out quaintly in the sun, and, turning philosopher by the very occupation, provided it with mottoes more touching than tombstones.” ))* Dialect, a local variation of language. The common meaning of the term dialect, in modern times, is the language of a part of a country, or a distant colony, deviating either in its grammar, words, or pronunciation, from the language of that part of the common country whose idiom has been adopted as the literary language, and the medium of intercourse between well educated people. In ancient times, when the great difficulties in the way of intercourse and communication between different parts of a country prevented, or at least impeded, the formation of a general language, each dialect was developed independently of the others, until some event gave to one the ascendency. In Greece we find four distinct dialects: the Ionic, Attic, Doric, and Eolic, each of which gave birth to literary productions still extant, until at last the greater refinement, and the cultivation of arts and sciences in Athens, gave the Attic dialect the superiority. Although the use of provincial dialects becomes inconvenient after a language has "Horas non numero nisi serenas ("I only count the hours of sunshine") was an ancient dialmotto of great beauty and significance. DIALECTIC-DIALOGUE acquired a fixed literary standard, the study of such dialects is always valuable to the philologist for the light they throw on the history of the language. Italian was once the vulgar dialect; and, even now, to translate into Italian is called volgarizzare. It was corrupt Latin mixed with barbarous words derived from the idicms of the conquerors of the country, and was used at first only by the lower classes; it then became the general dialect of common life; and at last Dante dared to adopt the "vulgar dialect," and to stamp it as a legitimate language. Spanish and Portuguese were cognate dialects, and might, like the different dialects of the Spanish provinces, have become one language, if the two nations had not been separated politically. In Germany no dialect has ever attained entire ascendency. Charles V., born at Ghent, spoke Low-German; but Luther's translation of the Bible, like Dante's Divina Commedia,' made High-German the literary language. Only the fundamental characteristics of the language of Upper Germany have remained in High-Ger man. Of English there are but two distinct literary dialects, the modern English and the Scottish, which is derived from the same Saxon stock. It has often been observed, however, that no country has more variations from the common literary language. The Scottish dialect exists in its purity only in the early poets, historians, and other writers of the country. Every county has its peculiarities, which are sometimes striking and difficult to be understood. It is evident that, although there never has existed a country so vast, and a population so large, as that of America, with so little variety of dialect, the work of development and decay is palpably going on in To begin with, the American Anglo-Saxon. dialect of the French Canadian is vivid and picturesque. That there are several distinct dialects in the United States is proved not only by the dialect literature of the East, the West, and the South, and dialect of the slums in New York, but also by the scientific publications of the American Dialect Society. The Dialect Notes' of this society furnish much valuable information on this subject, and 'The Ithaca Dialect,' in which a local New York State dialect has been investigated by O. F. Emerson shows that the differentiations of language in distinct sections will some day furnish abundant and interesting material for the student of dialect. Dialectic, the art of separating a subject into its parts by discussion. It thus includes both the use of reason and speech, and is the process of defining an idea or principle and testing the definition by showing all the consequences, both positive and negative, that it involves. Aristotle is reported to have said that Zeno the Eleatic was the father of dialectic. The justification of this remark is found in the fact that Zeno defends the position of his school by showing through a process of reasoning the absurd and contradictory results that follow from the conceptions defended by their opponents. With Socrates dialectic is an art of investigating a subject by means of conversation carried on by two or more persons, each of whom contributes something to the result, proposing defi nitions, or calling attention to certain aspects of The term dialectic has also frequently been Di'alogue, a conversation or conference between two or more persons. The dialogues of Socratic dialogue consists of questions and Plato are a sort of philosophical drama. The by successively assenting to the interrogatories answers, and the person questioned is obliged, The Socratic put to him, to come to the conclusions which the questioner wishes to produce. method has been adopted in modern times as a means of instruction in certain schools. Lucian claimed to be the inventor of humorous dialogue (see DIALOGUES OF THE DEAD). Erasmus of Rotterdam, and subsequently, among the Germans, Lessing, Moses, Mendelssohn, Engel, Herder, comic and satiric dialogue Wieland has imitate Jacobi, Solger, have written in this form. In Lucian. Among the most distinguished Italian DIALOGUES OF THE DEAD DIAMOND writers of dialogue are Petrarch ('De vera sapientia'), Machiavelli, Gelli, Algarotti, and Gozzi; and among the French, Sarrasin, Malebranche, Fénlon, and Fontenelle. Among the English, Bishop Berkeley and Hurd have imitated Plato, and Harris, Cicero. Lord Lyttelton's 'Dialogues of the Dead,' and Addison's 'Dialogues on Medals,' are well known, but Landor's 'Imaginary Conversations' is the finest production in English belonging to this class of works. In the drama, the dialogue, in a narrower sense, is opposed to monologue or soliloquy; in the opera, it is that which is spoken, in opposition to that which is sung. Dialogues of the Dead, satirical dialogues by Lucian (q.v.), written at Athens during the latter half of the 2d century. They have been frequently translated from the days of Erasmus to the present. The scene is laid in Hades. Among the characters introduced or referred to are: Menippus and Diogenes, the Sophists, and the Cynics, Aristotle, Alexander, Socrates, and Croesus. The decadent Olympian religion is exposed to ridicule, and it is demonstrated that the conception of fate logically destroys moral responsibility. In the dialogue regarding Charon and his passengers, the futility of riches and fame is shown, only sterling moral qualities availing in the shadowy land of Hades. Lord Lyttelton also wrote 'Dialogues of the Dead,' introducing some modern dramatis persona, including Cortez, William Penn, Ximenes, Wolsey, Boileau, and Pope; and Fontenelle's Dialogues des Morts' should be noted as embodying a similar idea. Dialysis, the separation of the crystalloid constituent elements of a mixture from the col loid, the former being bodies which diffuse readily, such as sugar, salt, bichromate of potassium, etc.; the latter bodies which diffuse with difficulty or not at all, bodies resembling glue or gelatin, such as gum, starch, caramel, albumen, the ordinary constituents of food, etc. The dialysis is effected by pouring a mixed solution of crystalloid and colloid on a sheet of parchment paper stretched over a wood or gutta-percha hoop, having its edges well drawn up, and confined by an outer rim. The parchment is allowed to float on a basin of water. In a short time all the crystalloid bodies will have passed through the membranous septum into the pure water, while the colloid matter will remain almost entirely in the dialyzer. Diamag'netism, the moving of bodies such as iron, when placed in a field of magnetic force, from places of weaker to places of stronger force. The opposite is true of bismuth and other substances. Such substances are said to be diamagnetic. See MAGNETISM. Diamantina, Brazil, a city lying somewhat north of the centre of the state of Minas Geraes, in a region formerly well known on account of its abundant production of diamonds. At the present time the wealth of the state is derived from agricultural and manufacturing industries; nevertheless Diamantina continues to prosper, being well situated with reference to the São Francisco River system, and the routes of travel between Rio de Janeiro and the interior. Its climate is good, owing to its elevation above sea-level (about 4,000 feet). Pop. about 14,000. system, Natural Crystal. surface of the diamond frequently exhibits striæ mate of lead and or- Florentine Crystal. DIAMOND sides its value as a gem it is of great use in Diamond dust is the arts and manufactures. used for cutting .and polishing other gems, for slicing gems of all kinds, agate, jade, and other hard substances. The edge of a native crystal rounded is used by glaziers for cutting glass, for engraving glass, steel, and other substances; the cut is generally to a depth of only 1-100 of an inch, but determines the direction in which the glass shall break; a cut of this depth, while scarcely showing, breaks well, whereas a deep A sharp point is used for scratch does not. engraving on glass and other hard substances; a splinter is also used as a tool for turning glass lenses in a lathe; and rough diamonds, too imperfect to be used as gems, are mounted as boring tools for perforating the softer rocks. In the amorphous black variety, carbon, carbonado, or bort is used for boring hard rocks; it sells for $30 a carat, the value per carat of a fine transparent rough diamond of from one to two carats, as scarcely 333 to 40 per cent of the crystals is left in the gem after the operation of cutting. Originally diamonds were preserved in their natural form, but in 1456 Louis de Berguin or Bruges discovered the art of polishing them on rotating disks with diamond dust. These circular disks, about 10 centimetres in diameter, are of soft steel covered with diamond dust and oil, and made to revolve at 3,000 revo Great Table Stone of India. lutions a minute. This gives the diamonds the artistic smooth surfaces and sharply defined edges. They are secured in a fusible metal dop or holder, held by a metal clamp to the wheel. The process is slow and tedious, and requires great skill to produce fine results. Until a few years ago Amsterdam was the great diamondcutting centre of the world, but the finest cutting is now done in the United States, and in a great measure by machinery. As to the cutting pro cess: A "rose" diamond is one gems. setting the which is quite flat underneath, with its upper part cut into 12 or more little faces or facets, usually triangles, the uppermost of which ter which has a large rectangular face on the top, minates in a point. A "table" diamond is one surrounded by four lesser rectangles. A "brilat top and bottom, and the table liant" diamond is one which is cut in faces both or principal face of which is flat; there are 32 faces on the top above the girdle, and 24 on the back, exclusive of the The on the back, 58 in all. table on the top and the inlet greatest amount of brilliancy diamond by the "brilliant cut"; and beauty is developed in the 98 per cent of all modern cut diamonds are cut in this form. Very few are at present "rose cut" or "table cut," though rose vogue from the 17th century; cut has been more or less in table cut was in vogue during the 15th and 16th centuries. The finest brilliant in the world to-day is the "Jubilee" diamond, shown at the Paris Exposition of 1900; this was a brilliant of 239 carats of wonderful brilliancy and purity, and was found at the Jagersfontein mine in South Africa. The Shah. Diamonds of from 1 to 22 carats each have been found in 24 localities in the United States. The combustibility of diamonds was proved in 1694 by Averani and Targioni with the aid of burning glasses. That diamonds turned to carbonic acid when burned was proved by Lavoisier in 1772. Many curious superstitions are connected with the diamond. It was supposed to show phenomena of sympathy and antipathy. It was fallaciously believed that the diamond, which resisted the two most powerful things in nature, iron and fire, might be destroyed by the blood of a goat; that, if it was macerated in fresh blood, it could not be destroyed by being It was believed also struck on an anvil, etc. to show a curious rivalry with the magnet, to drive strengthen poisons, and sometimes to away madness. That the diamond was known to the ancients is extremely problematical. Only two diamonds are mentioned by Castellani as existing in antiquity in a small gold statue, and speaks of diamonds compare Prophet the Star of the South. to the stubbornness of the Israelites diamond, and when the Greeks and Romans speak of the stone under the name of adamas or adamant, the "unsubduable," the stone referred to was really the corundum. There does not exist in a single antiquarian collection in Europe a stone of the mineral which we now call diamond; the earliest authentic specimen known DIARBEKIR the chest from the belly. In its natural situation the diaphragm is convex on the upper side toward the breast, and concave on its lower side toward the belly; therefore, when its fibres swell and contract, it must become plain on each side; and consequently the cavity of the breast is enlarged to give liberty to the lungs to receive air in inspiration; and the stomach and intestines are pressed for the distribution of their contents; hence the use of this muscle is very considerable. It is the principal agent in respiration, particularly in inspiration; for when it is in action the cavity of the chest is enlarged, particularly at the sides, where the lungs are chiefly situated; and as the lungs must always be contiguous to the inside of the chest and upper side of the diaphragm, the air rushes into them in order to fill up the increased space. In expiration it is relaxed and pushed up by the pressure of the abdominal muscles upon the viscera of the abdomen; and at the same time that they press it upward they pull down the ribs, by which the cavity of the chest is diminished and the air suddenly pushed out of the lungs. There are three openings in the diaphragm, one for the passage of the inferior vena cava; one for the passage of the oesophagus and pneumogastric nerves; and the aortic, through which pass the aorta, the right vena azygos, and thoracic duct. The diaphragm also comes into play in hiccough and sobbing, laughing and crying, sometimes causing hernia, or rupture of the viscera. 2. In optics, an annular disk in a camera or telescope or other optical instrument, to exclude some of the marginal rays of a beam of light. The original form of this beautiful contrivance is the iris of the eye, which shuts out strong light and regulates the quantity admitted. It the poor than the well-to-do, it cannot be said that diarrhoea is particularly a disease of the city or of the poor, since severe and even fatal attacks of it frequently occur among the rich inhabiting the seaside or mountains. The conditions that produce diarrhoea are varied and numerous. Exposure and sudden chilling of an overheated body, particularly of the abdomen, are potent causes; and travelers who make frequent changes of drinking water are very susceptible to it. In these cases personal idiosyncrasy plays an important role. The drinking of impure water and living in poor hygienic surroundings cause diarrhoea. Whether sewer gas or pollution of the atmosphere has direct influence is a disputed point, but it is certain that direct drainage of polluted sewage from districts infected with epidemic diarrhoea into a water supply is a potent cause. Daily variations of temperature, such as are experienced in the hot season from May to September, are familiar predisposing factors. Environment such as is found in densely populated districts where people live in damp basements, etc., with vitiated atmosphere and want of care, is in the same category of causes. Diarrhoea is often caused by the irritating action of mineral poisons, such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony, by overdoses of croton oil, etc., or by various cathartic nostrums. Worms of various species are likewise causative factors. Of late much attention has been given to these parasitic causes, notably that of protozoon Amaba coli, so frequently found in the stool of diarrhoeics, principally in tropical cases. Secondary diarrhoea is a phenomenon found during an attack of some antedating disease, as ulcer of the bowel, cancerous growths of the intestines, and the inflamed and ulcerative stage of typhoid fever. In diabetes and Bright's disease it is mostly a form of eliminative diarrhoa. Nervousness, particularly in women, is an annoying cause due to a temporary local congestion of the mucous membrane of the intestine. Diarbekir, de-är"bě-ker', Asiatic Turkey, city, capital of the vilayet of Diarbekir. stands on a high bank overlooking the Tigris, and is surrounded by a lofty massive wall, built of blocks of black porous stone, the best houses being also of the same material. The principal edifices are the great mosque, a fine structure with a square tower, and originally a Christian church; and the Armenian cathedral and Chaldæan church, handsome buildings recently erected. The manufactures, once very extensive but now greatly decayed, consist chiefly of iron and copper ware, leather, silk, woolen, and cot-like pains about the navel. Flatulence and vomton goods; the bazaars are well stocked with every description of goods, and a limited trade is carried on with Syria and Aleppo. Pop. about 40,000. Diarrhœa, a symptom of a disordered condition of the intestines, accompanied by too frequent movements of the bowels, due to their increased peristaltic (or wave-like) motion. Like dyspepsia, it is only a symptom of some pathological condition. Diarrhoea is usually the result of some indiscretion in diet, such as the eating of unripe or overripe fruit, improper or indigestible foodstuffs; or of poorly cooked, decomposed, or tainted meats and fish, these inducing a kind of diarrhoea due to a toxic or poisonous bacteria known as ptomaines, and is frequently alluded to as ptomaine poisoning. While relatively more prevalent in the city than in country districts, and oftener found among The symptoms of diarrhoea naturally vary with the causes, though certain symptoms are common to all forms. One of these is the frequency and character of the stools, which may vary from 5 to 20 or more in a day. At first soft, and mixed with particles of undigested food, they gradually grow more liquid until almost watery, and are attended by griping coliciting are also prominent features, and thirst is often great, owing to loss of liquids from the is usually quickened, though the fever is selbody through repeated evacuations. The pulse dom high, and is of no serious consequence. If the diarrhoea become chronic or long continued, prostration ensues, though this contingency is infrequent. Secondary diarrhea, due to chronic congestion or pathological changes in the intes tines, is much more intractable. The treatment of diarrhoea must necessarily vary with the inciting cause, though many cases recover spontaneously or need treatment for only a few days. Absolute rest and low diet are indicated in all forms. If the attack is due to exposure or cold, the application of hot turpentine stupes to the abdomen, with the administration of small and frequent doses of opium and bismuth, may be all that is required, when, however, it is due to offending food in the intes |