to the same conclusion as Dr. Anstie, that while the use of tobacco is in some cases highly injurious, in others it has very little effect. To the young, especially, tobacco is a perfect curse, stunting their development, injuring irreparably their general physique and growth, and often entirely altering their dispositions by bringing on a state of constant irritability. Its use is to be condemned in those of a sanguine and nervous temperament, and to be at least winked at, if not approved of, in those whose temperament is more phlegmatic and less easily disturbed." This writer even goes further than this, and asserts that "to the aged, who by long use have become accustomed to the drug, it is an actual necessity for health or happiness. Withdraw for one day the accustomed smokes of an old man, and see how miserable he becomes." "This," says Dr. Hare, "is not entirely a feeling brought about by mental desire for the drug, but because his system must have its accustomed dose of tobacco." And he adds, “The writer knows an old man personally, who after being out for a few hours will come into his house pale, feeble, and exhausted, so nervous, too, that he can hardly articulate, but who becomes quiet and comfortable after a few draws at his well-beloved pipe." We do not doubt the literal truth of this statement of Dr. Hare. But we also personally know an old man (now in his eightieth year) who thirty-three years ago was in nearly a like condition, who not only had no mental desire for the drug, but a strong mental aversion to its use, but whose whole system had become so tobacconized by chewing it moderately for a few years that its disuse for a few hours would produce pallor, dizziness, and a feeling of exhaustion, which could only be quieted by a quid of the filthy weed. This last-mentioned old man, after having the tobacco expurgated from his system and recovering from most of its deleterious effects, has not felt the need of any new supply of the narcotic to render him quiet and comfortable, and

most firmly believes that by discontinuing its use he has extended the duration of his life for perhaps a decade, if not a score of years. Dr. Hare expresses the opinion that to the laborer, or the man whose avocation keeps him out of doors, it is probable that tobacco rarely does harm, and that in cases of great physical fatigue it is often of use, calming the restlessness so often present after a hard day's tramp in the open air; but that to the man of business who is confined to an office and desk all day, to the hard student or the sickly, tobacco is decidedly harmful.

"After all,” says Dr. Hare," the whole question of tobacco use depends upon the quantity consumed, and the user of tobacco must gauge his use of the weed' not by the amount another man can stand without harm, but by the power which he finds the drug can exercise in his own person. Moderation is not the use of a small quantity of tobacco, but the use of such a small quantity that its results are not serious." Dr. Hare further says, "Certainly opium and hasheesh, and tobacco too, for that matter, are capable of producing great evils if they are used in excess, but not if moderation of a strict type be adhered to. After all, tobacco is only one of the numerous luxuries with which mankind enjoy themselves, and coffee and tea have probably produced an equal number of victims."

Dr. Hare says that he "considers that the enormous use of tobacco is probably the instinctive desire for some article which will retard tissue-waste. Indeed, all drugs which prevent the excretion of nitrogenous material have been sought after since the earliest history of man, and we can be pretty sure that a drug which is used everywhere, and by everybody, is one which helps a man to stand the jar and worry of business or other pursuits. Tobacco, coffee, alcohol, all retard tissue-waste, and therefore men, women, and children long for them, and, from using them instinctively and for a purpose, they soon use them in excess and as a luxury."

The brute is guided by instinct to reject the poison that would injure or destroy and to use the food which is adapted to its well-being; while the human being has been compelled to determine by experiment what was useful for food and what was hurtful, and was endowed with the faculties of reason and memory to enable him to choose what experience taught him was good and to reject what was injurious. That" men, women, and children long" for "tobacco, coffee, and alcohol, and use them instinctively for a purpose," as stated by Dr. Hare, is a startling proposition, and appears to us to be a very extravagant and unwarrantable one; but that they soon learn to use them in excess and as a luxury, when the natural repugnance to their use is overcome and an appetite for them is acquired, is a fact of general observation, and forcibly suggests to every candid mind the exceeding danger in using them at all. Coffee and tea have their victims; but as a beverage or narcotic, alcohol, opium, and tobacco probably destroy thousands where coffee and tea destroy hundreds. But even if the coffee were equally injurious, that fact would not detract one iota from the force of the argument against the use of alcohol, tobacco, or any other poisonous substance.

In closing our discussion of "Intemperance as a cause of Crime," it seems proper to remind the reader that we have not undertaken to write a dissertation upon the uses and abuses of alcoholic drinks or of poisonous drugs. We have only stated such facts in regard to them, as they are commonly used, as tended to prove that intemperance in the use of intoxicating drinks, has been one of the most fruitful causes of crime, and that tobacco and other drugs in common use are deleterious and lead to the intemperate use of strong drinks, and thus indirectly to crime.

CHAPTER V.

IGNORANCE A CAUSE OF CRIME.

"Learn to live, and live to learn,

Ignorance like a fire doth burn."

BAYARD TAYLOR.

"First upon his path stood Ignorance,
Hideous in his brutal might."

IGNORANCE is rather a negative than an active source of crime. By ignorance in this relation we do not mean the want of such intellectual training alone as the schools afford, but a want of that physical and ethical training and culture which are necessary in order to prepare men and women to be good citizens, and to fit them for usefulness to themselves and others in all the relations of public and private life; ignorance of the interest which all have in abstaining from evil and learning to do well; ignorance of the value of character and a pure life; ignorance of those high aims and purposes which elevate men in the scale of being and raise them above the dominion of appetite, passion, and sensual indulgence, and make them masters of themselves and the governors of their impulses.

Intellectual attainments are in themselves neither good nor bad. Knowledge and wisdom are not the same. "Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, have ofttimes no connection." The former is a perception of that which exists, or of truth and fact; learning; illumination of mind; skill. Wisdom is the right use or exercise of knowledge; the choice of laudable ends, and of the best means to accomplish them. As a faculty of the mind it is the faculty of discerning or judging what is most just, beneficent, useful; and considered as an acquirement it is the knowledge

and use of what is best, most just, most proper, most conducive to prosperity or happiness. "Wisdom," says the proverb, "is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting get understanding." "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man that getteth understanding. She is more precious than rubies: and all the things thou canst desire are not to be compared unto her." Not that wisdom which consists of the craft and artifices of men in promoting their selfish ends, not quickness of intellect and dexterity of execution alone; not a knowledge of arts, sciences, and literature merely, but that higher and more enlightened wisdom which applies knowledge to the attainment of what is best and most useful.

That "ignorance is the parent of many vices" has long since passed into a proverb. No man with a clear perception of what is right and just, and of what is wrong, and of the duty which he owes to hinself and others, and of the ultimate consequences of his actions, can ever choose to commit a wrong. It is that ignorance, therefore, which is the antithesis of wisdom, that is the cause of crime. This ignorance results mainly either from a false education or the want of a proper education of youth. The proposition that the welfare of the State depends upon the proper education of its citizens, and that it is therefore its duty to provide for such education of all the children and youths within its jurisdiction as is calculated to make them intelligent, peaceable, and useful citizens, is fully recognized as true in most of the Commonwealths of the Union, and, as far as its powers extend, by the government of the United States; but our methods for the attainment of so great and noble a purpose have been and are sadly defective, and for obvious reasons must continue so for a considerable time to come.

Free schools are established and supported by assessments upon the taxable property of the country, and school