tion of iodine or Lugol's solution. Should the sample contain starch, then the following modification is to be applied:

1. The glycogen which might be present in the meat product is exclusively extracted by boiling the sample of meat to which the necessary quantity of water has been added in a water bath, which requires several hours.

2. The filtered extract is very carefully reduced on the water bath to one-third of the original quantity of the meat.

3. To this concentrated juice two or three times its volume of concentrated acetic acid is added, which precipitates the starch (frequently only after a few hours).

It has not yet been determined whether the method recommended by Baur and Folenske is suitable for the separation of starch and glycogen through the precipitation with a saturated ammonium sulphate solution.

4. The liquid containing the precipitate is carefully filtered through a double or three-folded filter, and to a small quantity of the filtrate iodine is added for the starch test. Should some starch still be present, the addition of acetic acid must be repeated and the material again filtered.

5. To the solution which does not contain any starch, iodine water may be directly but carefully poured for the glycogen test. But as the extract becomes diluted two or three times its volume through the addition of acetic acid, it becomes advisable in case of negative results:

6. To precipitate the presumptive glycogen by the addition of alcohol to ten or twelve times its volume.

7. The cloudy alcoholic solution is filtered through as small a filter as possible.

8. The traces of glycogen, which might have been retained in the filter, are dissolved with a few drops of hot water, and with water acidified with acetic acid. and the solution which thus passes through is then carefully tested with iodine water for glycogen.

The entire procedure of this examination of products containing starch must be carefully executed in every part, owing to the danger of the formation of dextrin, which might be mistaken for glycogen. A chemical separation of dextrin from glycogen has not yet been accomplished. Further information must be obtained from the original works on the subject.

It should be especially emphasized that the method of EdelmannBräutigam should be preferably used for diagnostic purposes. In general work this method should be applied for the demonstration of the presence of glycogen in the suspected meat product, and, if necessary, through a quantitative chemical analysis, the quantity of the glycogen should be determined in the product.

The published modification of Edelmann-Bräutigam's method by Courtroy and Coreman cannot be recommended.

Bastien advises the following simplification of Edelmann-Bräutigam's method for determining glycogen in sausages:

20 g. of the sausage to be examined is chopped and boiled for about one hour, until the quantity is reduced to 30 c. c. After cooling, it is filtered and to 10 c. c. of

the filtrate 2-5 drops of iodine water is added. A red-violet coloration proves the presence of horse meat, even if the sausage contains only 5 per cent. of such meat. The coloration disappears quickly, therefore the reagent must be added carefully in crder not to obtain a red-brown coloration.

Should the sample of sausage contain starch also, the above-mentioned boiled mass is first decanted, and according to the quantity of starch present, I or 2 volumes of acetic acid is added. After 5 minutes it is filtered, and 10 c. c. of the filtrate is taken for the same iodine test as described above.

Lebbien also recommends a new method for the quantitative determination of glycogen, which, however, must firs: be proved satisfactorily in practice. This method is principally adapted for experts in chemistry.

Hasterlik aimed to utilize the large quantity of iodine which the horse fat contains for a distinguishing sign. The latter amounts in the intermuscular horse fat to 79.71-85.87, compared with 49.74-58.45 in beef fat. In mixtures of these fats or with lard the quantity of the iodine changes to such an extent that the method cannot claim an absolute reliability. The method itself is recently said to have given good satisfaction with meats prepared by cooking.

Bremer does not accept such a high content of iodine in the fat of the horse as Hasterlik, and advises Niebel's method as a supplementary examination.

Nussberger recommends the Zeiss refractometer for the determination of horse fat (Chap. IX).

This method is also prescribed by the regulations of the imperial meat-inspection law.

All these methods should be submitted at first to expert chemists.

G. Cattle and Deer

The muscle fibers of beef are coarser than those of deer, and the bones are also stronger. Deer meat is darker than beef, and is not so mottled with fat. The fat of deer appears much like mutton fat; it is harder and more brittle than beef fat.

H. Cattle and Buffalo

Generally the fresh buffalo is darker (more reddish-brown); the fibers are coarser and looser in the structure than beef. The odor of buffalo meat and fat resembles that of musk, and if boiled in strong acidified (sulphuric acid) water it develops a disagreeable odor similar to that of cattle manure (Puntigam and Halusa). The cutaneous shoulder muscle of buffalo is only 3-5 fingers broad, while that of cattle is considerably broader. The fat of buffalo is strikingly white, and is dryer and less sticky than in cattle. The conformation of the bones of the buffalo is generally finer and the bones are more brittle. The pubic symphysis of the buffalo appears strikingly plain.

III. The Production, Preparation, and

Conservation of Meat

In the utilization of meat for human food it undergoes various processes or preparations, and should it not be consumed within a certain period it must be conserved in order that it may be kept.

1. Chopped Meat

The production of chopped meat by means of cutting the flesh with a knife, cleaver, rocking-knife, or meat-grinder is the simplest method of preparation. For this purpose beef and pork are principally used, but veal is likewise utilized to a small extent. The short tendonous meat of the head, leg, and all other parts of the body, which does not find a ready sale in the butcher shop is thus worked up into a more salable product. Naturally fat is also added and chopped up with the meat in larger or smaller quantities.

Chopped meat is consumed either raw, after flavoring with salt, pepper, and onions, especially in northern and middle Germany, or is used for the preparation of meat sausage, meat balls, and various other dishes (German beefsteak, hamburger steak).

In order that the chopped meat should retain the red muscular coloring matter, sulphurous acid and its salt are frequently added, which, however, do not retard all decomposition.

Meyer examined the bacterial contents of chopped meat by sowings on gelatin plates and found 1,695,000 to 12,717,000 bacteria to I g. of meat. The number of bacteria was not influenced by the usual additions of preservative salts.

2. Sausage

By sausage is understood a mixture of meat which is placed into a sausage covering. For coverings the intestines are principally employed, the scrous membrane being inverted (see page 34); besides the esophagus of cattle, the stomach of hogs and the urinary bladder of various food animals are also used. Lately the so-called artificial parchment is also used as a cover or casing.

The varieties of sausages and their preparations vary considerably in the different countries. This applies especially to those varieties of sausages to which larger quantities of vegetable ingredients are added. The principal ingredients of sausage are always muscle meat and fat, besides

blood, heart, tongue, connective tissue, hog skin, liver, and various other parts of the viscera. In order to make the sausage tasty, spices (salt, saltpeter, sugar, pepper, paprika, caraway, marjoram, garlic, onions, coriander, cinnamon, clove, truffle, sardelle, etc.) are added to the animal ingredients. Many varieties of sausages are prepared for an early (immediate) consumption; in order to increase the keeping qualities of sausage they are either smoked only or they are at first boiled and then smoked.

In accordance with the composition of the filling the following varieties of sausages may be distinguished:

A. Meat Sausages

The meat sausage consists chiefly of chopped beef, pork, or veal. For commercial purposes they are divided into:

I. Fresh sausage and sausage for boiling or scalding, which are sold under various names.

2. Sausages of keeping qualities, which are known as cervelat, summer sausage, etc.

Since fresh sausage or sausage for boiling are destined for early consumption, they do not contain any preservatives, and at most they might be slightly smoked in order to improve the taste. The sausages with keeping qualities, on the other hand, should keep for a longer period. This is accomplished by the reduction of the contents of water in the filling by drying and by smoking. The addition of water to sausage filling of fresh sausage or those for boiling or scalding is usual and positively necessary when the mass is to be filled in the narrow casings. The absorbing power possessed by sausages for water (see page 38) depends on the binding quality of the meat. The higher or lower binding quality of the meat. influences the consistence of the sausage mass inside of the covering and therefore the slicing of the sausage as well as the appearance of the cut surface. The quantity of the added water, which amounts to about 24 per cent., according to Hofmann, is of no special importance, since through the hot smoking of boiled sausages and others, not only the added water is lost, but frequently even a portion of the natural content of water of the meat. For this reason, and also on account of the taste of the public demanding juicy, well-stuffed sausages, the addition of water to the filling of this variety of sausages cannot be considered as an adulteration.

The addition of flour to sausage filling, which for a time had assumed considerable proportions, was declared by the butchers to be an absolute necessity. on account of the meat losing its binding qualities through the fattening foods used by the hog raisers. This, however, cannot be confirmed as there are places where the addition of flour is never practiced, yet they produce a splendid meat sausage. If the addition of flour is kept

within a certain limit (about 2 per cent.), it does not necessarily indicate in boiled or scalded sausages a deterioration, as it thickens the juice of the sausage and makes the sausage more palatable. However, the addition of flour is only permissible where the consumers are aware of that practice. In sausage with keeping qualities the addition of any quantity of flour means an adulteration. The supposition that the addition of flour to the sausage filling makes the absorption of a larger quantity of water possible is erroneous, as starch flour absorbs water only in boiling, and boiling water or prepared paste is not employed in the preparation of

sausage.

With the addition of mixtures of egg-albumen and tragacanth, the so-called "albumina," it is possible to produce a sausage filling consisting of 35 kg. meat and 50 kg. water, with a content of only 3 per cent. of "albumina." Therefore such an addition must be considered as an adulteration.

Although the coloring of the sausage filling is prohibited for the German Empire (see also B. A. I. Order 150, Reg. 22, Secs. 1 and 2) by the imperial decree of February 16, 1902, it should, however, find brief mention here. The coloring, which was frequently employed in the production of sausages of keeping qualities, was principally practiced to prevent the color of the filling turning gray and especially in order to prevent this occurrence on the cut surfaces. The turning of the color is due to a change of the muscle coloring matter into a colorless modification, which does not necessarily indicate a simultaneous spoiling of the muscle substance. The causes for the sausage turning gray have not yet been satisfactorily established. According to Meyer, this occurs through a loss of salt in the sausage filling, which progresses gradually toward the center by means of osmosis, and naturally may soon affect the cut surface uniformly, thereby turning it gray. It is possible that an insufficient nitrite formation from the saltpeter of the sausage filling might play a part in the change of the color, which, as it has been indicated by K. B. Lehmann and Kalbrenner, changes the hemoglobin into a new red blood coloring derivative (the hemorrhodin). (See also page 96). Glage explains the turning gray of the sausage to the action of the volatile sulphur compound in the meat (N2S) in combination with oxygen on the muscle coloring

matter.

As coloring matter there is employed most frequently cochineal or the carmine which is derived from it. There are also employed numerous preparations with various names (karnit, albon-karnit, rubro-karnit, etc.), but coal-tar preparations as fuchsin, safranin, ponceau, rosalin, and eosin are seldom used.

Through coloring, meat of a lesser value and that which contains only a small amount of muscle coloring matter may be changed into better appearing meat, and the fat in the sausage may also be changed to such an extent that it simulates

meat.

The coloring of the casings (sausage cover) is not affected by the above-mentioned prohibition. However, unwholesome stains (for instance korollin) should not be permitted to be used.

[The use of coloring matters in the preparation of sausage is prohibited in the United States. This, however, applies only to the sausage.