be seen. There are only about 100 species of Morphides, and 50 of these are included in Morpho, which is peculiar to tropical and sub-tropical America; the other half of the family is divided among ten or twelve genera, found in the Indo-Malay region; there being none in Africa. The eastern Morphides, though fine Insects, are not to be compared, either in size or brilliancy, with their American allies. The species of Morpho are apparently found only in the great forests of South America, where they are far from rare; some have a flapping and undulating flight, straight onwards along the alleys of the forest, and near the ground; others are never seen except steadily gliding with outstretched wings from 20 to 100 feet above the ground, where they move across sunny spaces between the crowns of the taller trees; the low flyers settle frequently on the ground to suck the juices from fallen fruit, but the members of the other section never descend to the ground. As regards the caterpillars, W. Müller tells us that the spines they are armed with break off, and enter the skin, if the creatures are carelessly handled. Four of the five species known to him are conspicuously coloured with black, red, yellow and white. The individuals are gregarious. The larvae of M. achilles sit in companies, often of more than 100 individuals, on trunks of trees, and so form a conspicuous patch. The caterpillars of M. epistrophis hang together as red clumps on the twigs of their food-plants. Hence it appears that in this genus we have an exception to the rule that night-feeding caterpillars rest in a hidden manner during the day.

Sub-Fam. 5. Brassolides.-Large butterflies, with the cell of the hind wing closed, and usually with a small adjoining prediscoidal cell. Larva not very spiny; thinner at the two ends, the tail bifid, the head perpendicular and margined with spines. This small sub-family includes less than 100 species arranged in about eight genera, all South American. They have the very unusual habit of resting during the day like moths, becoming active only late in the afternoon. They are truly noble Insects; although not possessed of the brilliant colours of Morpho, they are adorned, especially on the under surface, with intricate lines and shades most harmoniously combined, while the upper surface is frequently suffused with blue or purple. This sub-family

1 Kosmos, xix. 1886, p. 355.

FIG. 179.-Larva of Caligo (Pavonia) eurylochus. Rio de Janeiro.

x 1.

(After Burmeister.)

attains its highest perfection in the genus Caligo; they are enormous Insects, and some of them not rare. The larva of C. eurylochus (Fig. 179) during early life is green, and sits on the leaf of a Musa, but after the third moult it becomes brown and hides itself among the dry leaves. It is common in the gardens of Rio de Janeiro, where its pupae are found on the walls, like those of our white butterflies here.

Sub Fam. 6. Acraeides. - Submedian nervure of fore wings not forked at the base; the median without spur. Cells closed. Palpi in section cylindric, sparingly set with hairs. Larva armed with branched spines. A somewhat monotonous and uninteresting division; the size is moderate or small, and the colours not artistic, but consisting of ill-arranged spots; the under side of the hind wings very frequently diversified by numerous line-like marks, radiately arranged, and giving place at the base to a few spots. There are about 200 species known, of which the majority are African; there are but few Oriental or South American species. Some authorities consider there is only one genus, but others prefer to adopt seven or eight divisions. Alaena is now placed in Lycaenidae, though until recently it was considered to belong here. The females of some species possess an abdominal pouch somewhat similar to that of Parnassius.

The members of this sub-family are considered to be of the protected kind.

Sub-Fam. 7. Heliconiides.-Submedian nervure of front wing not forked; median with a short spur near the base. Cell of hind wing closed by a perfect nervule. Palpi compressed, with scales at the sides, in front covered with hairs. Male with an elongate unjointed, female with a four-jointed, front tarsus. Caterpillars set with branched spines. This family is peculiar to tropical America and consists of only two genera, Heliconius and Eueides, with about 150 species; but it is one of the most characteristic of the South American groups of Butterflies. It is very closely allied to the Nymphalides, especially to the genera Metamorpha and Coluenis, but is readily distinguished by the perfectly-formed nervules that close the wing-cells. The wings are longer and narrower than in Nymphalides, and the colour, though exhibiting much diversity, is on the whole similar to that of the heavily-scaled forms of Ithomiides of the genera Tithorea, Melinaea, Melanitis; there being in several cases a great resemblance between species of the two groups. A frequent feature in one group of Heliconius is that the hind wing bears a patch of red prolonged outwards by angular radiating marks. The individuals of certain species-H. melpomene and H. rhea-are known to execute concerted dances, rising and falling in the air like gnats; when some of them withdraw from the concert others fill their places. H. erato exhibits the very rare condition of trichroism, the hind wings being either red, blue, or green. Schatz states that the different forms have been reared from a single brood of larvae. The caterpillars of Heliconiides live on Passiflorae, and are said to be very similar to our European Argynnis-caterpillars. The chrysalids are very spinous. We may here remark that considerable confusion exists in entomological literature in consequence of Ithomiides having been formerly included in this sub-family; for remarks formerly made as to "Heliconiides," but that really referred only to Ithomiides, have been interpreted as referring to Heliconiides of the present system.

The Heliconiides seem remarkably plastic as regards colour, and are therefore exponents of "homoeochromatism." Bates says, as regards them: "In tropical South America a numerous series of gaily-coloured butterflies and moths, of very different families, which occur in abundance in almost every locality a naturalist may visit, are found all to change their hues and markings together, as if by the touch of an enchanter's wand, at

every few hundred miles, the distances being shorter near the eastern slopes of the Andes than nearer the Atlantic. So close is the accord of some half-dozen species (of widely different genera) in each change, that he had seen them in large collections classed and named respectively as one species." Many of them are believed to be permeated by nauseous fluids, or to possess glands producing ill-smelling secretions.

2

Sub-Fam. 8. Nymphalides.-Cells, of both front and hind wing, either closed only by imperfect transverse nervules or entirely open. Front tarsus of the male unjointed and without spines, of the female four- or five-jointed. Caterpillar either spined or smooth; in the latter case the head more or less strongly horned or spined, and the apex of the body bifid. This subfamily is specially characterised by the open cells of the wings; the discocellulars, even when present, being frequently so imperfect as to escape all but the most careful observation. The Nymphalides include upwards of 150 genera and 2000 species. The divisions having smooth larvae are separated by Kirby and others as a distinct sub-family (Apaturides). In Britain, as in most other parts of the world, Nymphalides is the predominant group of butterflies. We have eighteen species, among which are included the Fritillaries, Admirals, Purple Emperor, and the various Vanessa-Peacock, Camberwell Beauty, Red Admiral, Tortoise-shells, and Painted Lady. All have spined caterpillars except the Emperor. In the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere Vanessa may be considered the dominant butterflies, they being very numerous in individuals, though not in species, and being, many of them, in no wise discomfited by the neighbourhood of our own species. Several of them are capable of prolonging and interrupting their lives in the winged condition to suit our climate; and this in a manner that can scarcely be called hibernation, for they frequently take up the position of repose when the weather is still warm, and on the other hand recommence their activity in the spring at a very early period. This phenomenon may frequently be noticed in the Tortoise-shell butterfly; it is as if the creature knew that however warm it may be in the autumn there will be no more growth of food for its young, and that in the spring vegetation

1 P. ent. Soc. London, 1879, p. xxix.

2 Allen's Naturalists' Library, Butterflies, i. 1896.

is sure to be forthcoming and abundant before long, although there may be little or none at the time the creature resumes its activity. It is probable that the habit may be in some way connected with an imperfect activity of the sexual organs. It should, however, be recollected that many larvae of butterflies hibernate as young larvae after hatching, and, sometimes, without taking any food. Pyrameis cardui, the Painted Lady, is, taking all into consideration, entitled to be considered the most ubiquitous of the butterfly tribe. Its distribution is very wide, and is probably still extending. The creature is found in enormous numbers in some localities, especially in Northern and Eastern Africa; and when its numbers increase greatly, migration takes place, and the Insect spreads even to localities where it cannot maintain itself permanently. In Britain it is probably during some years nearly or quite absent, but may suddenly appear in large numbers as an immigrant. The favourite food of the larva is thistles, but many other plants serve the Insect at times.

Vanessa, or Pyrameis,1 atalanta, the Red Admiral, is common in the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, and extends its range to various outlying spots. The most remarkable of these is the remote Hawaiian Islands, where the Insect appears really to be now at home, though it is associated with a larger and more powerful congener, P. tameamea. Another interesting Vanessid is Araschnia levana, which is peculiar to Europe, where it produces annually two generations so dissimilar to one another that they passed current as two species, V. levana and V. prorsa. Although intermediate forms are rare in nature they can be induced by certain treatments applied to the larvae under human control. The dead-leaf butterflies of the genus Kallima belong to Nymphalides. They are so shaped and coloured that when settled, with wings closed, on a twig, the appearance is exactly that of a dry leaf; the exposed surface is mottled with spots that look just like the patches of minute fungi, etc. that are so common on decaying vegetation. The colour and the spots on the under surface of this butterfly are very variable. According to Mr. Skertchly, we may presume that in the minute details of

1 A most unfortunate diversity exists in the generic names applied to these Vanessa, as well as in those of many other Lepidoptera.

2 Ann. Nat. Hist. (6), iv. 1889, p. 212.

VOL. VI

2 A