Only 24 hours that seemed as one, if it were not for all the pleasant recollections gathered in such a short time. Long live our order we say.

MRS. OTTO DANZIGER, Sec.

BLUEFIELD, W. Va., breaks through a long silence and knocks for admittance once more. We have a good Division and have re-elected a number of the officers of last year.

On November 29 a social was held at the home of Sister Perkins, where with music and recitations we whiled the

hours away. A splendid lunch was served which called forth much praise.

If all members would attend the meetings regularly everyone would have a say as to what is being done, leaving no room for faultfinding.

We are taking in many new members and doing lots of charity work. Our donations to the widows at Christmas time amounted to $20. Trusting that you will welcome us when we come again,

Drv. 211.

As the New Year has dawned, I want to let our sister Divisions know how No. 260 is progressing. We are small in number but so congenial in our work. We have been handicapped some as we are located in a small town, but through all our difficulties we have passed smoothly. For the past year we have been having a social club which meets twice monthly at the homes of our Sisters, taking our turn alphabetically in entertaining. We limited refreshments, so there was no rivalry on that line. We generally have some contest and they have been instructive and entertaining, even if we do have to "put on our thinking caps." The contests have kept the stiffness from the club. Our dues to these socials have been 10 cents per month, thereby through the year we have added quite a nice sum to our treasury. I have gone into detail thinking possibly it would give some other small Division a good suggestion, especially in small towns where there are so many calls on the people for money.

We had a Halloween party the 31st of October, and how we did work, but felt

amply repaid when we cleared a nice sum. Sister Van Riper's home was at our disposal as is always the case and we make good use of it.

We had Jack-o'-lanterns made of pumpkins on the verandas, and of course had the witch and fortune telling. Had a peanut march which caused much merriment. The apples suspended from the ceiling and in tubs were an amusing feature for the little folks. Our color scheme was green and yellow which was carried out throughout the house.

We have had three initiations through the year, and we hope to continue to add to our number. It may be slowly but it it is surely. We are justly proud of our little band of workers. It has drawn us so near together that it has been a great blessing and privilege to be a member of the Grand International Auxiliary to the B. of L. E. It draws us together in a way that nothing else ever could.

Even the name of our great order expresses power and vastness. I enjoy the letters from the sister Divisions, the JOURNAL is such a nice medium through which we can become acquainted. Our installation of officers was such a pleasure, every officer being present to take the obligation, our Past-President and Marshal doing their work so efficiently.

May this be a great year for us all and may our motto be our watchword.

MRS. CHARLES SANBORN.

THE members of F. S. Evans Div. 99, of Boston, held their annual sale recently, which proved a success, netting the goodly sum of $108 for their treasury. The Lowell ladies are worthy of special mention, realizing from their table of useful and fancy articles the sum of $38. All the tables showed the hard work of the committee in charge.

On January 19 the ladies gave an entertainment, "The Deestrick Skule" being the feature of the evening. The dinner pails were numerous, containing the mammoth hole doughnuts and other monstrosities. Each boy and girl was supplied with a generous piece of gum, and performed antics which amused the audi

ence, but were kept in subjection by the schoolmaster, the rod of correction and the dunce box. Sister Batchelder, who will tip the scales at a pretty good weight, was quite in evidence, representing a boy of four years, who came to school with his sister; he wore a Russian suit, chewed gum and carried a Teddy bear. Would like to mention each one who took part but space will not allow. Ice-cream and cake were served to the audience by the boys and girls of the "skule." The willing workers of Div. 99 are thoroughly imbued with the enthusiasm to gain the dollars, enabling them to do good in many ways, sometimes flowers are sent to cheer and brighten the sickroom of a dear Sister, and again a sum of money is sent accompanied with sympathetic words. May Div. 99 ever meet with prosperity is the wish of its Insurance Secretary. E. W.

THE ladies of the B. of L. E. very pleasantly surprised Mrs. B.A. Downen last Friday night at her home in De Soto, Mo. Music and games furnished the entertainment of the evening, and about 11 o'clock dainty refreshments were served. It was a very enjoyable affair, as can be vouched for by those present. Mesdames D. J. McDermott, O. L. Owen, J. H. Holleran, Thos. McMunn, Wm. Wander, Tim Shane, M. Rabbit; Misses Annie Shane, Irene Holleran, Maud Reed, Laura McMunn, Mary Wander, Hattie Turner; Messrs. J. Holleran, Emmet Rabbit and Lyier.

Mary F. Wiley, of Div. 163, aged 53 years. Carried one certificate, dated Aug. 18, 1902, payable to Robert C. Wiley, husband.

ASSESSMENT No. 306.

Sparks, Nev. Jan. 13, 1907, of chronic hepatitis and organic heart trouble, Sister Mary L. Givan, of Div. 48, aged 60 years. Carried two certificates, dated Jan. 21, 1895, payable to Mrs. Mary Givan Stein, Edward K., and Albert Givan, daughter and sons.

ASSESSMENT NO. 307.

Susquehanna, Pa., Jan. 17, 1907, of paralysis, Sister Margaret O'Neill, of Div. 6, aged 74 years. Carried one certificate, dated Jan. 20, 1899, payable to Charles O'Neill, son.

ASSESSMENT No. 308.

Chicago, Ill., Jan. 18, 1907, of heart disease of short duration, Sister Hattie M. Latham, of Div. 1, aged 47 years. Carried one certificate, dated June 26, 1906, payable to Clarence Latham, husband.

ASSESSMENT No. 309.

Americus, Ga., Jan. 27, 1907, of cancer, Sister Margaret J. Clark, of Div. 260, aged 52 years. Carried one certificate, dated Jan. 23, 1902, payable to Mrs. P. Edward Keiley, daughter.

ASSESSMENT NO. 310.

Columbus, O., Feb. 2, 1907, of heart disease and dropsy, Sister Clara Colburn, of Div. 52, aged 52 years. Carried one certificate, dated Nov. 19, 1902, payable to John J. Colburn, husband.

Members will pay their Insurance Secretaries on or before March 31, 1907, or be marked delinquent; and in order to reinstate must pay a fine of 10 cents on each certificate besides the delinquency. Insurance Secretaries must remit to the General Secretary and Treasurer not later than April 10, 1907,or stand delinquent until remittance is made. Contingent Fund.

SPECIAL ASSESSMENT.

You are hereby notified to collect at first regular meeting in March, 1907, 25 cents from each member carrying one certificate, and 50 cents from each one carrying two, providing, however, that no one be assessed on a certificate if the date of same was later than February 28, 1907. Assessments Nos. 306, 307, 308, 309 and 310 will be paid from the Assessment Fund.

Members who paid Assessments Nos. 278 and 279. 5.587 in the first class, and 2,390 in the second class.

NOTICE-Owing to the many inquiries as to the legality of claim 298, January JOURNAL, 1907, we will call attention of members to dates of laws of eligibility of applicants. Prior to 1900 there was no age limit. In May, 1900, a limit of 50 years was placed on second certificates only. This law did not take effect until September 1, 1900. In May, 1902, the age limit was placed at 50 years on first certificates and 45 years on second certificates taking effect September 1, 1902, continuing the same to present date.

MRS. GEO. WILSON, Pres. V. R. A. MRS. JENNIE E. BOOMER, Sec'y and Treas., 5333 Prairie Ave., Chicago, III,

• Technical »

Contributions for this department must be received by the Editor on or before the 12th of the month to be in time for the succeeding issue.

Electrical Railroading.

BY ELWOOD GRISSINGER.

PART XV.

The speed at which any direct current motor armature will revolve is determined by the relative strength of the main magnetic field and the magnetic field created by the current in the armature itself. This of course assumes that the voltage delivered to the motor and the load upon it are approximately constant. These conditions satisfied, then an increase in the strength of the main field of force will result in a lower speed for the armature. Conversely, if the main field is weakened the armature will immediately increase its rate of revolution. This action of the two fields with respect to one another is taken advantage of with suitable devices to regulate or change the speed of motors within certain limits.

When the strength of the field created by the armature currents is increased sufficiently it can be made to overcome the main field, in which event, under a light enough load, the armature will quickly increase its speed far beyond the factor of safety. The series-wound motor lends itself more readily than any other type to a demonstration of this peculiarity. Its construction is such, however, that it is essentially a variable speed motor. For every change of load it will have a different speed, the voltage delivered to it remaining the same. Similar variations will likewise cause the motor to exert a different torque. This torque or turning moment is the greatest in street railway motors at starting, and it is this characteristic of such motors that enables them to get under headway quickly. Such motors operate in this manner because the lower the speed of the armature, under load, the more current it will draw from the circuit, and since the strength of the main field depends entirely upon the

amount of current passing through the armature, such main field is proportionately built up so as to give the armature increased turning effort. With a given motor, the greater the relative strengths of armature and main fields, the greater will be the turning moment of the armature.

Shunt-wound direct current motors heretofore referred to are widely used in general manufacturing. They differ electrically from the street railway motor in the manner of constructing the main field and creating its magnetism. The magnetic field is practically uniform (except for armature reaction and distortion) under all conditions of load. It has, therefore, a nearly uniform speed. The field coils obtain their current from the supply circuit independently of the armature. These coils are therefore designed to receive current at the pressure of the supply circuit, having a resistance sufficient to prevent the passage of a heavy current through them and having the requisite number of turns of wire to create the necessary strength of magnetic field with the current such coils are designed to carry. The electrical energy used in such coils for inducing a magnetic field is termed a field current. The windings are so designed that they will efficiently radiate the heat which the passage of such currents would generate. Well designed machines should run very cool in the field windings.

All smaller sizes of shunt motors are self-regulating as to speed and do not have external devices to be used for the purpose of changing the armature speed. As a result such motors will run at a slightly higher rate of speed at full load than when running light. The reason for this is already pointed out. The main field is practically uniform in strength, and as the armature current increases with the load the armature reaction and effects of cross magnetization weaken the main field somewhat, thereby causing the armature to increase in speed. Larger sizes of shunt motors have with them what is termed a field rheostat. This is a type of resistance so arranged as to be connected

in series with the shunt coils. It is built up of resistance elements suitably connected within a fire-proof casing and arranged by means of contacts so that a greater or lesser resistance can be used in series with the shunt coils. The use of it makes possible the variation of current flowing in the shunt coils. In this manner the strength of the main field is varied. The greater the resistance cut into the field circuit the weaker the main field becomes, and the faster the armature will revolve. Conversely, as the amount of such resistance is decreased, the speed of the armature will decrease, the load remaining the same. If, however, it is attempted to increase the speed beyond a certain limit when the motor is fully loaded, considerable sparking will appear at the brushes. Such a limitation is soon reached. The sparking results from a weakening of the main field to a point where the armature reaction so distorts the main field as to shift the neutral point beyond the line of commutation. Such a condition very quickly manifests itself. It can be alleviated somewhat by shifting the brushes, but in general it is unwise to attempt to push the speed to a point where such sparking begins to evidence itself.

The starting devices of street railway motors have already been rather fully described under the name of controllers. Shunt-wound motors are started differently, and the devices for the purpose have been termed starting boxes or starting rheostats. The controllers, diverters or resistances, armature and field coils of railway or series-wound motors are in series with one another in starting. The same current passes through all of the elements. The shunt-wound motor has a circuit embracing the field coils and field resistance or rheostat in series with one another. The armature in series with the starting box forms a separate circuit. In starting such a motor, therefore, the first consideration is to make certain that the current is first turned into the field coil circuit. When this has been done the current can be sent into the armature through the starting box with its full resistance cut in. This causes a lower volt

age to be impressed upon the armature at starting. As the armature picks up in speed the resistance of the starting box is gradually reduced by passing from notch to notch until all such resistance has finally been withdrawn from the armature circuit. The starting box is then virtually cut out, the armature is receiving the line voltage and running up to speed.

Failure to have the field current on at the time the armature circuit is closed will result in disaster. If the motor is to operate at a potential of 500 volts, the current would undoubtedly jump across the brushes. At this juncture if a circuit breaker or fuse failed to operate, the brush-holders and commutator would probably be ruined not to say anything of the resulting bodily discomfort to any one who might be near at the time. Five. hundred volt direct current is a very vicious form of electrical energy when permitted to roam about under such circumstances. Similarly, if the field circuit should ever be opened when the motor is running without at the same time opening the armature circuit, the armature would immediately acquire such a speed that it would fly to pieces. Shunt motor starting boxes are designed to prevent accidents similar to those just mentioned. They have an arm pivoted at one end, the other end moving over the copper contacts. This movement reduces the resistance in series with the armature. Immediately such arm is started from the first contact, the current is first sent into the field circuit, after which the armature circuit is closed. This operative detail is so taken care of that it is impossible to start the motor in any other manner. After the armature is up to speed and as a result all of the resistance cut out, the arm of the starting box has reached the limit of its movement, a small projection on the arm engages with the end of an armature of а small electro-magnet mounted on and a part of the box. The winding of this electro-magnet is in series with the field coils. Therefore, when a current energizes the field coils, the same current magnetizes the core of the small electro-magnet mentioned as a result of

which its armature is attracted and is kept engaged with the projection on the starting box lever, retaining that lever in the running position. If the current in the field is cut off for any reason, then the armature of the small retaining electro-magnet is released, thus freeing the starting lever. That lever is then immediately snapped back into the off position by means of a strong spring. This action takes place before it becomes possible for the motor armature to reach an abnormal rate of speed. The same kind of a starting box can be and is usually used with compound-wound motors.

The commutator of a dynamo or motor is such an important detail of the equip ment that some extended description of it will now be made. Hard forged copper segments are used in its construction. The segments are insulated from one another and from the motor shaft by mica. They are laid side by side with mica between and securely held in place by a shell and collar arrangement. When such a unit has been turned down and trued in a lathe, it is keyed upon the armature shaft and held in place by a lock nut. The armature shaft is usually tapered where the commutator shell is held in place.

The old-style motors made use of copper brushes, whereas the practice for a number of years past has discarded the copper for a carbon brush. Copper brushes had a higher current-carrying capacity but were much more troublesome to keep trimmed and in such condition that they would not cause injurious sparking. Carbon brushes have a lower current carrying capacity, but in every other respect excel any other type of brush that has ever been employed. Their lower carrying capacity, however, necessitates a commutator of larger dimension in order that sufficient brush surface can be obtained.

Notwithstanding the fact that the carboa brush was the means of improving commutation, the commutator and accompanying carbon brush-holder still remain the most important and most difficult parts of railway motor equipment

construction. The work which a railway motor is called upon to perform is not only very exacting but the conditions attendant upon the daily run are so very variable that not only must the very best materials be employed in building up a commutator, but refinements of workmanship utilized as well.

The load conditions of a motor change quickly and through a wide range. Such changes bring about a rush of current through the armature, the brushes transmitting it to the commutator and the commutator distributing it throughout the windings. Both of these elements must handle the heavy currents without undue heating and without sparking. This means that they must run true, that the brushes must always bear uniformly with full surface upon the commutator, and that both must be kept absolutely clean and free from any dirt or grit. Failure to maintain these elements in this condition brings about the injurious sparking which once begun is hard to prevent thereafter. The rapid deterioration of both commutator and brushes begins immediately. It then becomes necessary to dismantle the motor and remove the armature, placing the same in a lathe truing the commutator. In doing this work, a fairly high speed must be used and a hard and sharp tool employed. Copper is soft and tough so that great care must be exercised to prevent the cutting tool from carrying burrs across or partly through the mica insulation between segments. Such burrs not infrequently are the cause of a breakdown between adjacent segments of a commu

tator.

The sparking between brushes and commutator may sometimes be traced to a rough condition of the commutator surface, to the fact that it may run eccentric, to a flat segment, one or more high bars or to a piece of the mica insulation which may project somewhat beyond the adjacent segments. Any of these defects will cause the brushes to lose uniform contact with the commutator when the same is running at a high rate of speed. A lack of proper care in