shown through the conductors across the pole faces, then the direction of rotation of the armature will be changed. A change in the polarity of the field poles and of direction of armature current at the same time does not change the direction of rotation of the armature. One or the other only must be changed. This is what takes place in street car motors when they are reversed. The reversing handle on the controller changes the direction of current through the armature leaving the field polarity the same.

Some motors are built having an angle of lead between the commutator and the armature conductors. The field poles may be placed on the horizontal and vertical instead of at an angle therewith as shown in Fig. 1. When this is the case in a series winding, the armature leads would come out in such a way to the commutator that the brushes would be shifted around 45 degrees, and therefore would stand in a position difficult and awkward to reach. To overcome this and bring the brushes in a similar position to that shown in Fig. 1, the commutator is virtually turned 45 degrees about the shaft, or in reality the armature coil leads are carried just that much farther around to accomplish the same thing. Simple series or wave windings might appear complicated when it would be merely due to the angle of lead. The position of the brushes with respect to one another is always fixed. They are always 90 degrees apart. If there are more than two sets, the adjacent sets are always 90 degrees apart. In railway motors when we refer to brushes one set is always inferred. Railway motors are so designed that the position of the brushes is fixed with respect to the frame. They cannot be moved around the periphery of the commutator. This is another reason why the armature winding is always arranged so that the brushes will be at the top, and why in many windings an angle of lead is given to the winding.

Fig. 2 shows a four-pole series winding with an angle of 45 degrees. The same number of armature slots and commutator bars have been used as in Fig. 1. The

same lettering and numbering is likewise adopted. The circuits can be traced in the same manner as for Fig. 1. In fact, the two figures are electrically identical. They look differently on paper but each will operate in precisely the same manner and the same reasoning will apply to both. The only difference is the angle of lead. This is evident at a glance, since the lettering, etc., is relatively the same. In Fig. 1 slot o has a coil that is connected in front to segment 11. In Fig. 2 slot o has a coil that is connected in front to segment 8. One lead of a coil now comes almost straight to a commutator segment whilst the other is carried some distance around.

The question of the number of turns of wire in each armature coil is one of design to meet the conditions. The speed to be maintained with given load, the grades encountered, curves, number of stops, acceleration, etc., must all be considered in the design of a successful railway motor. An armature with a small number of turns of wire is speedier upon a level track but it is also less powerful, i. e. has less torque with the same size of wire than an armature with a greater number of turns. This is because by increasing the number of turns of wire on the armature, the ampere-turns (amperes flowing multiplied by number of turns) are also increased. Increasing the ampere-turns of the armature means increased magnetic lines in the armature and this means a more powerful action between armature magnetic lines and field magnetic lines.

Reference was made to armatures with bunched slots. The design of machinewound coils for this class of armature is much more difficult than the types already described. The principal reason is that unless great care and skill are exercised too many neutral slots will appear. (Neutral slots are those in which two or more coils might lie in the same slot, each carrying a current in the opposite direction. Their effect would therefore be neutralized.) While bunching of slots reduces their number and makes possible an armature of smaller diameter, it also

current in the winding and its direction can be traced in the same simple manner.

It should be understood that the diagrams forming a part of this article do not represent actual motors but are only intended to illustrate graphically the style of armature windings. Actual motors, while built in accordance with the drawings, would have a different number of armature conductors, armature turns of wire, armature slots and commutator segments.

Fast Run on the P. R. R.

On Sunday, Oct. 7, Mr. A. A. Ryan obtained a special of engine and one car to reach Washington before the death of his brother. The train left West Philadelphia at 8:01 p. m. and arrived at Washington at 10:16 p. m., 137 miles, with delays at five points of 16 minutes, making the running time for the 137 miles 119 minutes, making the running time 86.8 miles per hour. Bro. Charles Forbes, Div. 51, engineer with Class E 2nd Engine No. 5147. Brother Forbes thinks with a clear track the run could have been made in 100 minutes, but the run made is very commendable.

Stops Collisions by Rail.

United States Consul-General Dillingham at Auckland, Australia, in a report to the department of commerce tells of a new system for preventing railway collisions. He says:

"An interesting change has recently been made in the signaling system in New Zealand's railway, which, it is thought, will make collisions absolutely impossible.

"For a long time, up to a recent date, what is known as the 'block' system has been generally used, but the 'tablet' system has now been introduced. The essential point in the new system is that no engine driver is allowed to leave a station without a tablet in his possession, and the element of safety rests on the fact that the machines are so made that it is impossible for two of the tablets to be out at the same time.

"If a driver leaves Auckland for Newmarket with a tablet that tablet has to be

deposited in the machine at Newmarket before another tablet is issued allowing a return train to leave that station for Auckland, and the electrical connection between the two stations makes it impossible to extract a tablet from the Auckland machine until the tablet has been put into the machine at Newmarket.

"It is claimed by railroad experts that under the new system two trains can not be on the same section at once, so there is no danger of collisions."-Ex.

Consolidation Type Freight Locomotives.

A pamphlet just published by the American Locomotive Company illustrates and describes Consolidation locomotives weighing more than 175,000 pounds. It is a sequel to the pamphlet issued in October presenting designs of this type weighing less than 175,000 pounds. In the pamphlet 28 Consolidation locomotives built for various railroads and ranging in weight from 175,000 pounds to 250,000 pounds are illustrated and the principal dimensions of each design given. This is the fourth of the series of pamphlets which is being issued by the American Locomotive Company to include all the standard types of locomotives. The series now covers the Atlantic, Pacific and Consolidation types and copies of these pamphlets may be had upon request.

Locomotive Tests.

Messrs. Fred. A. Schaff, William L. Batt and W. H. Winterrowd, members of the Senior class at Purdue University, have undertaken a series of locomotive tests under the direction of Professor Goss and Mr. B. D. Lockwood, mechanical engineer of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis. The object is to determine the relative efficiency of locomotives equipped with the Walschaert valve gear as compared with the locomotives having the Stephenson gear. The tests will be conducted on the Chicago division of the Big Four between Indianapolis and Kankakee. During the tests, which will occupy three weeks or more, it is planned to make runs aggregating some 2,000 miles.-Railway Age.

A Chicago newspaper, discussing the scarcity of laborers, estimates that in the territory west of Chicago the number wanted for new railroad construction at the present time is not less than 50,000. Fast Run.

On Saturday, October 20, the Empire State Express was run from Utica to a point near Syracuse, 54 miles, in 45 minutes. This run was made by Engineman G. W. Gilbert with engine No. 3865.

Fast Run on the Panhandle.

A special train carrying members of a theatrical company, consisting of one sleeper, one coach and two baggage cars, made a run from Pittsburg to Chicago over the Panhandle (Pennsylvania Lines West, Southwest System) on November 18, 507 miles in 10 hours and 52 minutes, which is at the rate of 46.7 miles an hour. The Pennsylvania Special, which runs over the Pittburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago (Northwest System), makes 468 miles by that route regularly at 50.1 miles an hour. The fastest regular train by the Panhandle route makes the run from Pittsburg to Chicago in 15 hours and 30 minutes.Railway Gazette.

White River Valley Road Closed. Because it was considered unsafe for traffic the White River Valley Railroad has been ordered closed by the State Board of Railroad Commissioners of Vermont. The road, which is 19 miles long

and runs from Rochester to Bethel, was built eight years ago. An official of the road is authority for the statement that the present unsafe condition of the line is due to the failure of some of the towns along the line to pay a subsidy for its maintenance, as agreed when the road was built.-Railway World.

[The people along this road are now realizing the inconvenience of having it closed and are petitioning to have the road resume operations. Better patronage is what is needed if it is to be put in safe order. Less said against the road and more for it would probably result in giving it new life. It is has been the butt of Vermont.-ED.]

England's Rate Bills Do Not
Regulate.

In an interview the Philadelphia News Bureau quotes W. M. Acworth, a London writer on railway economics, as follows:

"Our English Parliament started regulating railway rates 60 years ago and has passed rate regulation bills at intervals of about 10 years ever since. The last was in 1893, so another is about due. Probably it will come in a year or two and when it does come, like its predecessors, it will not make much difference to anybody."-Railway World.

New Zealand Railways.

The New Zealand railway report for the fiscal year ended June 30 last shows the total revenue for the year as £2,349,704, and the expenditure as £1,621,230, leaving a net working profit of £728,465. The passengers carried totalled 8,826,382, an increase of 312,270 over the previous year's total. The working expenses came to 69 per cent of the revenue. The mileage open for traffic was 2,406 miles.Victorian Railway Magazine.

New South Wales Railways. The New South Wales Railway Commissioners' report on the working of the railways and tramways for the fiscal year ended June 30 last was presented to the local Parliament last month. The report states that the number of miles open for traffic was 2,390, and the amount spent on construction and equipment £43,626,063.