ment alone, and are thus placed within the reach of the efforts of Christian friends, like the scribe to whom Jesus could say, "Thou art not far from the kingdom of God," Mark xii, 34; others have quite renounced all religious professions, and devoted themselves to the cares and pleasures of this life, like too many of the nominal Christians around them. This is very much the case where Popery and irreligion prevail; and the expression, "he lives like a Christian," has become proverbial among the more rigid, to denote a profligate and irreligious character. This state of carelessness is common, though not peculiar to the Jews now settled in England. Until the last few years the Jews of Poland and Germany were far superior to most of their brethren in strictness and outward decorum, and some of the most bigoted still continue to reside in those lands. Further particulars as to the modern descendants of Israel may be found in a little work entitled "The Jew in all Nations," published at our Book-Room.* Having lost the fear of God, they are enslaved to the dread of evil spirits, who, they say, are constantly exerting influence to injure them, and regularly frequent the synagogues to hear sermons. They believe that if they do not rise betimes in the morning, and immediately wash themselves, the evil spirits are sure to get hold upon them; for their prayers have only power to keep these enemies in check for a certain number of hours. All these rules show that they trust to their own strength, and they have also many charms and "curious arts," which are foolishly supposed to be useful. The condition of Jewish females is especially degraded. They are not always, even in the present day, taught to read, for it is considered unnecessary for them to study the law. In the synagogues, also, the women are confined to their own latticed gallery, and can see or hear little of the public worship below. How different from the direction of Moses, Deut. xxxi, 12. The male children begin to learn the Hebrew text at five years; but, from the age of ten, the Talmud and its commentaries are chiefly studied. Although the labors of Christian ministers and teachers among the Jews have, in many cases, been crowned with success; yet still, as a body, they remain insensible to the No. 307 Youth's Library. sin of their nation in crucifying the Lord of glory, and rather regard their dispersed and wretched state as a punishment for other offenses. They continue to await the coming of the Messiah, who, as some of them say, is sitting in disguise as a beggar at the gates of Rome. Others look for two Messiahs, the one suffering and the other triumphant. Thus the children of Israel have abode many days without a king, and without a prince, and without a sacrifice but they shall fear the Lord and his goodness in the latter days. On the annual return of the date of the destruction of their temple, some of the Jews have long been accustomed to assemble near its site, to mourn over its ruins, and read the Book of Lamentations. To this occasion the following lines refer : "Where yon sad ruin crowns Moriah's steep, Thy gathering thousands press the hallow'd ground; A louder, loftier chant begins to rise; The voice of prayer cheers Judah's weeping throng, CHAPTER XIII. COURTS OF JUSTICE. WHILE mankind remained in the small divisions of families or tribes, the father of the family, or head of the tribe, possessed and exercised the authority of a judge. All quarrels or complaints would be brought before him, or decided by him as the legal ruler. When these bodies of men became more numerous, or the head proved infirm, others would be appointed to discharge his duties, which, by degrees, in every community, led to some method for the regular administration of justice. In the patriarchal times, we find many proofs that matters were thus decided; and when the first stage of society was passed, it appears that judgment was regularly given in public, usually at the gate of the city, which was the place of chief resort and passage. All public business in the East seems to have been trans acted there, for which purpose spaces were left at the gate, where buildings were often erected. Abraham bargained for his purchase of a sepulchre at the gate of the city of Hebron, Gen. xxiii, 10. Hamor and his son negotiated with Jacob and his sons at the gate of the city, Gen. xxxiv, 24. The transaction between Boaz and the nearer kinsman of Ruth was at the gate of Bethlehem. This explains Job v, 4, where the children of the wicked are said to be crushed in the gate, and Psalm cxxvii, 3, where it is said of those blessed with families, that they shall not be ashamed when they speak with their enemies in the gate. Also Prov. xxii, 22,-Neither oppress the afflicted in the gate; and Lam. v, 14,-The elders have ceased from the gate. Many consider that our Lord makes allusion to this, (Matt. xvi, 18,) when he says the gates of hell shall not prevail against his Church. In Eastern cities generally the same custom has existed. The Turkish sovereign has long been called the Porte, a name derived from the performance of public business at the gate of the palace. When the Israelites left Egypt, they had no arranged system for the administration of justice, which doubtless had been carried before the Egyptian tribunals. All matters and disputes, therefore, were brought before Moses, who devoted much of his time to settle them. But it was obvious that some other plan must be adopted among so vast a multitude. The particulars of the change are recorded, Exod. xviii. Before the Israelites entered Canaan, the administration of justice there throughout the land was noticed, Deut. xvi, 18, and the appointment of administrators for every locality was an important measure. In the following chapter, various provisions relative to their proceedings are given, with directions for obtaining further judgment in matters of importance. There is no particular account of them before the captivity, except in reference to the proceedings of Jehoshaphat, 2 Chron. xix, 8-11, though at first the judges, and afterwards the kings, superintended the administration of justice in matters of difficulty. Thus Deborah appears to have acted, (Judg. iv, 5,) while the general administration was conducted by others, probably those noticed ch. v, 10. The Eastern mollahs, or men of the law, have been thus distinguished in later days. After the captivity, Ezra appointed two classes of judges, Ezra vii, 25; but difficult cases were still brought before the high priest or ruler, until the time of the Maccabees, when a supreme tribunal was appointed. This was the Sanhedrim, or great council, as it is often called in the New Testament, consisting of seventy-two persons, under a president and vice-president. From the time of B. C. the office of president was held distinct from that of high priest, and became of considerable importance. The method of appointment to this council is not clearly stated, but it consisted of three classes, these were the chief priests, the elders, perhaps the heads of tribes and the scribes, or men learned in the law. This council appears to have sat daily, at first in a room between the inner and outer courts of the temple, afterwards in other places. Its authority was very great; it decided all causes brought before it from inferior courts, and directed the affairs of the nation generally. Especially it decided upon those who claimed to be prophets, who were numerous in the latter days of the Roman state. From this council a deputation was sent to John the Baptist, in order to examine his pretensions and proceedings, John i, 19. This council also sat upon our blessed Lord, but the assembly by which he was condemned was hastily and illegally summoned, and came together determined to condemn him, (Matt. xxvi, 59,) seeking false witnesses to give a color to their proceedings. When the Roman power became paramount in Judea, the power of ordering the punishment of death was taken from this assembly. The stoning of Stephen was a tumultuous act, not a regular sentence, Acts vii, 57. When the rulers were powerful and arbitrary, this council could not exercise much power. Under Herod, who, at the beginning of his reign, had caused the whole number, except three, to be beheaded, they could not act with independence. Latterly, though the Romans ruled in Palestine, the Sanhedrim exercised more independent authority in matters connected with the Jewish privileges and religion. Thus it filled up the measure of the national iniquity, by its bitter persecution of the Christians, of which many details are recorded in the Acts of the apostles, and also in the Epistles. The seventy elders chosen by Moses in the wilderness, under the Divine direction, seem to have been a council, or senate, that assisted him in governing the people. There is no trace of their having sat as judges, or mention of them after the arrival in Canaan. There were also smaller councils of local authority. These are thought to be referred to by our blessed Lord, as the judgment, Matt. v, 22. But the inferior courts of judicature are not clearly described by any writers upon whom reliance can be placed; for the Talmudists are not worthy of credit. However, there were judges in every city and town, who were assisted by two Levites, that tribe being devoted to the study of the law, and best skilled in its precepts. In reference to these tribunals, great care was taken to inculcate the necessity for the strict and correct administration of justice and the prohibition of bribery. See Exod. xxiii, 8; Lev. xix, 15; Deut. i, 17–19. They were even cautioned against leaning too much to the feelings of compassion, Lev. xix, 15. They were in fact the representatives of the Most High as the Supreme Ruler, and therefore must act without respect of persons. bribery and corruption prevailed with other evils, which the prophets frequently reproved. Amos even testifies to the taking a bribe so paltry as a pair of wooden sandals, ch. ii, 6. The administration of justice among heathen and Mohammedan nations, in the East, has usually been very corrupt, and the judges have almost openly exacted bribes from the parties applying to them. Yet There were also courts of judicature held in the synagogues before the rulers of them, who inflicted punishment by scourging, Matt. x, 17; Acts xxii, 19, 20. Something of this sort still exists among the Jews, and frequently, as of old, it is made the means of oppression and persecution. The assemblies mentioned by St. James, (ch. ii, 2,) are concluded to have been similar courts among the early Christians. The context evidently refers to matters of judgment, in which the poor were oppressed, rather than to public worship, though it must be admitted that too little attention has been given to the accommodation of the poor, even in our days. There has been, however, considerable improvement in this respect in our own land. Hired pleaders or advocates were Each man spoke in his own cause. proofs, Prov. xviii, 17; 2 Sam. xix, 15; Jer. xxvi, 12–15; but none could be stronger than that of the two mothers, unknown in early times. Of this there are many |