spared, contrary to the barbarous usages then general. Even this appears cruel; but whoever recollects the events of the last European war, and particularly the conduct of the French armies in Spain and in Portugal, will remember that, on many occasions, the most atrocious cruelties were exercised on all persons without distinction. The general character of the Jewish warfare is shown by the direction that even in sieges unnecessary waste was to be avoided, and that fruit-trees were to be spared, Deut. xx, 19, 20. There were, however, instances of an opposite kind, 1 Chron. xx, 1; 2 Kings iii, 18.

The whole of the able-bodied men, from twenty to fifty years of age, were liable to military service, when called upon, even including the priests and Levites, Num. i, 3. At the present day, in many parts of Europe, the people assemble for war when called upon; the practice in Europe, in feudal times, was similar. This accounts for the large armies assembled at a short notice. All were liable to serve, but when all were not wanted, a part were selected. There are several instances of this, as Judg. iv, 10; vi, 35. One of the most remarkable narrations, is that of the relief of Jabesh Gilead, (1 Sam. xi, 7,) with the army which Saul summoned.

Of course, these large bodies, though soon arranged under leaders and captains, were little more than tumultuary bodies, each man bringing his arms and provisions. Jesse supplied these for his sons, 1 Sam. xvii, 17. The time for being embodied was seldom long, and there were various exemptions granted, to those who had built a new house, and had not dedicated it; to those who had planted vines and olives, but not eaten of their produce; and to those who had betrothed a wife, but had not yet taken her home, and also for the first year after marriage, Deut. xx, 5-9. Even cowards were permitted to retire, which shows the peculiar character of the government. These enactments were more favorable to the Jews than the customs of the heathens, which are alluded to by Homer. In the case of Gideon, they reduced his army from 32,000 to 10,000, Judg. vii, 3. Afterwards a still further reduction was made, that the power of Jehovah might be still more remarkably manifested, and the courage and ardor of his followers put to the proof. Lapping water from the hollow

of the hand was considered a mark of sobriety and promptitude. It is still common in Africa.

With the kings began the practice of a standing army, 1 Sam. xiii, 1. Saul had such a force, consisting of 3000 men. David had a body called the Cherethites and Pelethites, respecting whom little is known; the Chaldee paraphrast terms them archers and slingers, 1 Chron. xviii, 17. They continued faithful, even in the time of Absalom's rebellion. David also regulated a military force on the principle of a national militia, consisting of twelve bodies of 24,000 men each, who were on duty for a month alternately, 1 Chron. xxvii, 1-15. His numbering the people was probably a military enrollment. Ch. xxi, 5.

Subsequently a more regular force was kept on foot. Jehoshaphat had garrisons in his fenced or fortified cities, 1 Chron. xvii, 12-19. There were officers or captains of tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands, 1 Chron. xii, 14, 20; xiii, 1; xxviii, 1; 2 Kings i, 9, 11, 13; 2 Chron. xxv, 5. They appear to have worn some insignia of their rank, as a military girdle, 2 Sam. xviii, 11. There was a captain of the host, and this post was filled by Abner under Saul, Joab under David, Amasa under Absalom, and again under David. The authority of this officer was great, as appears from the manner in which Joab repeatedly domineered over David, and the mention of his authority in 2 Kings iv, 13.

There are many instances of David exposing his own person in battle, until his people objected to it, 2 Sam. xxi, 17. All were foot-soldiers, until Solomon introduced horses from Egypt, which has always been famous for its cavalry, 2 Chron. ix, 25; 1 Kings x, 28, 29. Afterwards chariots were introduced, in which the kings and others rode, 1 Kings xxi, 35; 2 Kings ix, 25; 2 Chron. xxxv, 24. These had been previously used by the Egyptians, Canaanites, and others, Exod. xiv, 9; Judg. iv, 3; Josh. xvii, 18. These chariots of iron were frequently armed with scythes, and were sometimes of disservice in war. David destroyed many that he took, 2 Sam. viii, 4. Light-armed troops, with slings, javelins, or bows, or spearmen with swords and spears, formed the greater part of the army. After the first shock, in ancient times, every battle became a multitude of single combats. Some remarkable instances are particularly recorded, 1 Sam. xxi, 21; xxiii, 20-22. In

later times, under the Maccabees, the military customs of the Jews assimilated more and more to those of other nations. The horrors of heathen, and even of Jewish wars, need not here be enlarged upon. The religion of Christ is directly opposed to such practices; yet while evil principles prevail abroad, nations are obliged to adopt some system of defense. But wars of aggression are detestable, and it is to be regretted that the minds of youth are too much familiarized to their details. Truly has the poet said of mere ambitious conquerors,

"The hero scourges not his age alone,

His curse to late posterity is known;

He slays his thousands with his living breath,
His tens of thousands by his fame in death.
The steel of Brutus struck not Cæsar dead;
Cæsar in other lands hath raised his head,

And fought, of friends and foes, on many a plain
His millions, captured, fugitive, and slain."

The victories of Israel of old were celebrated with praise and thanksgiving, yet the soldiers were reminded of the nature of blood-guiltiness, Num. xxxi, 19. There was a general distribution of the spoil, verse 27; Josh. xxii, 8; 1 Sam. xxx, 4. The mode of commencing warfare varied according to circumstances. Sometimes a challenge was sent, 2 Kings xiv, 8; xviii, 20. Full particulars are given as to that in which Jephthah engaged, Judg. xi.

There are many allusions to warfare in the New Testament, but the contest therein described is of a spiritual nature; see 2 Tim. ii, 3, 4 ; iv, 7; 2 Cor. x, 4. Our Lord appeared to Joshua as captain of the Lord's host, in order to animate him to his work; and Christians in all ages may say with confidence,

"Now let my soul arise

And tread the tempter down;
My Captain leads me forth

To conquest and a crown!

A feeble saint shall win the day,

Though death and hell obstruct the way!"

CHAPTER XVII.

EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT.

No community or society of men can exist without provision being made to defray the expenses of the government of that part of the community who have to give up their time and devote their labor for the general benefit. There may be individuals who, being already in possession of enough for their support, are ready to devote some portion of their time, without remuneration from others, but these instances are necessarily rare; and such persons being of course more free from responsibility and interference, it is very seldom that their services are more efficient or less expensive in the end, than those that are regularly given in return for a remuneration. These principles apply to the condition of the Jewish state; and it will be seen that these affairs were arranged with the same wisdom that directed every part of their polity, and were equally calculated to promote mercy, justice, and truth.

The main principle of the Jewish government, as already remarked, was the Theocracy, or the Most High being considered as their Ruler. The tribe of Levi were selected as his officers; and their time being given up to the public service, (Deut. xxxiii, 10,) it was necessary that they should be provided for at the public charge; but this was directed with merciful consideration, not with the arbitrary exactions of heathen rulers. Every Jewish family was placed in possession of a portion of land, from whence they derived support. The produce would be according to the blessing of their heavenly King upon their labors a portion was fairly and equitably to be rendered to his service. With this view, the Jew was to pay the first-fruits and the tenths of his increase, Mal. iii, 8.

This contribution included not only the first-fruits, but the first-born of animals, Exod. xxii, 29; Num. xviii, 12, 13; Deut. xxvi, 2. These are repeatedly mentioned in Jewish history, for instance, 2 Chron xxxi, 5; and were renewed after the captivity, Neh. x, 35, 36. The amount to be contributed is not specified by the law; the Talmud states it

was the fortieth part, or even the thirtieth from the liberal; while the avaricious gave only the fiftieth. The larger oblation was said to be made with a good eye; the other was called an oblation with an evil eye. Some think that our The first-born of men

Lord referred to this, Matt. xx, 15. and animals of the unclean sorts were redeemed by the offering of a lamb instead of the latter, and by certain articles for the use of the Levites, instead of the former, Exod. xiii, 13; Deut. xviii, 4; Num. xviii, 15, 16.

Fruits were to be offered when they were finest, from the feast of Pentecost to that of Dedication; Deut. xxvi, 1-11, refers to the ceremonies used on that occasion. The harvest in Judea begins in our spring-time, but it was not to be gathered until the new sheaf had been offered after the passover, nor might bread be made until the new loaves were offered on the day of Pentecost. This was thought to sanctify the produce, and seems to be alluded to Rom. xi, 16. In later times, the presentation was a solemn ceremony-the Sanhedrim sent certain priests to the cornfilds near Jerusalem, who reaped a handful of the first ripe corn. This corn was then carried with pomp and rejoicing to the temple. In 1 Cor. xv, 20, there is a beautiful allusion to this ceremony, where St. Paul, speaking of the resurrection of Christ, is inspired from thence to prove the certainty of the general resurrection. "Now is Christ risen from the dead, and is become the first-fruits of them that slept." The first-fruits being reaped, and solemnly presented in the temple, clearly proved that there was a harvest ready to be reaped; so a risen Saviour proves that there is a resurrection, and at the appointed time and order all shall be raised up.

The tenths were a further contribution, under the theocracy, a fixed amount given for the support of that government, and were generally collected from all the fruits of the earth, but were chiefly composed of corn, wine, and oil, Lev. xxvii, 30; Deut. xiv, 22, 23; Num. xviii, 21; Neh. xiii, 5, 10. These were tendered every year, according to their produce, and given to the Levites in their cities, but not in the Sabbatical year, which was a year of rest. owner also gave a second tithe, which was carried up to Jerusalem and eaten in the temple. Here let the reader pause a moment, and reflect on the directions given to re

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