Tax-gatherers are never popular. In the East they are especially hateful, and in many instances, this may be traced to their unjust oppressions. Forbes has given a lively picture of the distress that prevailed in a district of Hindostan, where the men of each class in society tried to enrich themselves at the expense of those below them, and the little farmers who plundered the peasants were in their turn seized by the superior rulers. In lands like these, the words of Prov. xxviii, 3 may be applied,—

"A poor man that oppresseth the poor

Is like a sweeping rain which leaveth no food."

The same writer also alludes to the heavy burdens extorted as gifts from the distressed peasantry, both in India and in the Turkish empire, where poultry, butter, fruit, and vegetables are required in abundance, without payment, by the officers of princes, from those who are scarcely able to supply themselves with the common necessaries of life.

CHAPTER XVIII.

SECTS AND ORDERS OF MEN.

AFTER the spirit of prophecy ceased, various religious sects sprang up among the Jews. The most important was the sect of the PHARISEES, so called from their pretending to more than ordinary sanctity and strictness in religion. This, for the most part, was but outward show, as is evident from the words of our Lord, Matt. xxiii, 25-28, where he compares the Pharisees to whited sepulchres, and expressly says, "Ye outwardly appear righteous unto men, but within ye are full of hypocrisy and iniquity." Josephus describes the Pharisees as assuming to be more pious and devout than others, and to interpret the law with greater accuracy. The precise date of the origin of this sect is not known, but the Pharisees soon obtained vast reputation and power. About eighty years before Christ, king Alexander Janneus, when on his death-bed, advised his wife to conciliate the Pharisees, since that would be the way to secure the affections of the nation for herself and her children; for

whether they spoke truly or falsely, or reported good or evil of any one, they would be believed by the people. She followed his advice, and the Pharisees supported her authority and interest. The influence they possessed, and even the censures passed upon them by our blessed Lord, show that they were outwardly what would be called respectable and devout characters, commanding respect by their profession and general demeanor. The words of our Lord

to his disciples were, that their righteousness must exceed (surpass) that of the Pharisees. The appellation was then accounted honorable; it was a sort of proverbial saying, that if but two persons entered heaven, one of them would be a Pharisee.

The main feature of their errors was, that they set up what they called the traditions of the elders, and represented them to be of the same authority as the Divine law; thus in reality making the commandment of God of none effect by their traditions, as our Lord declared, Matt. xv, 6. By explaining the law according to these traditions, they easily perverted it to their own views, although directly opposed to the Divine will. This is fully exemplified by

their rules respecting the Sabbath, already noticed. These traditions were not regularly committed to writing till the second century after Christ, when they were embodied in the work called the Mishna, from which several quotations have been before made.

The PHARISEES, in effect, placed the whole of religion in outward ceremonial observances, and had no desire for that purity of heart, without which none shall see God, Matt. v, 8. They indulged in pride and malice, and all sorts of spiritual wickedness; this often naturally led to secret licentiousness in practice. A striking proof is recorded, John viii, 9; every one of the Pharisaical accusers became a self-condemned criminal, on hearing the heart-searching appeal of our blessed Lord. Their outward displays of piety and charity were literally what our Lord condemns; they prayed standing at the corners where streets met, and where they might be observed by the passengers in each; and they caused trumpets to be sounded to give public notice of the distribution of their alms, Matt. vi, 2–5.

In their dress the Pharisees also affected many peculiarities. The phylacteries, or pieces of parchment with texts inscribed thereon, worn upon their foreheads, or on their arms, were made broader than among the other Jews. This practice was founded upon a mistaken literal interpretation of Deut. vi, 8, which directs to bind the law for a sign on their hands, and to let it be as frontlets betwixt their eyes; evidently a metaphorical charge to remember the Divine word, and to meditate thereon. They also enlarged the borders of their garments, Matt. xxviii, 5; they made the fringes or tassels particularly large. These fringes the Jews were commanded to wear, to distinguish them from other nations, Num. xv, 38, 39. One of their rabbis, in commenting upon this passage, says, "When any man is clothed with a fringe, and goeth out therewith to the door of his habitation, he is safe; God rejoices, the destroying angel departs, and that man shall be secured from all hurt and destruction!" This may suffice as a specimen of the lying glosses and traditions of the Pharisees. Many others of a similar kind are related by Lightfoot and Gill. It is unnecessary to enlarge upon the errors and blasphemies of this sect. We can easily conceive that such men must have been opposed to our Lord

and his doctrines. They disapproved of the religion of the heart taught by our Lord, on account of the spirituality of its nature, the universality of its requirements, and the purity of its principles. Having set their carnal hearts upon worldly glory and temporal deliverance, they scorned the miracles and doctrines which were directed to the healing of the bodies and souls of men, and they ceased not to persecute the Messiah, till they brought him before their sanhedrim, and upon false evidence condemned him as an impostor and blasphemer.

One extreme commonly leads to the opposite; those who fall into either, often equally depart from the truth. Thus the SADDUCEES were as careless and profligate in their outward conduct as the Pharisees were over-strict. They equally rejected the pure, self-denying doctrines of Christ, and joined their enemies, the Pharisees, in persecuting and putting to death the Lord of life and glory. Our Lord cautioned his disciples equally against the doctrines of both, Matt. xvi, 6–12. The Sadducees, like many other sects, owed their origin to a perversion of that which is right and good. Sochæus, a man of authority, about 250 years before Christ, impressed upon the minds of his scholars, that they should serve God purely from love and gratitude to him, not from an interested desire of reward, or a servile dread of punishment. One of his followers, named Sadoc, not rightly understanding this doctrine, taught that there was no future state of rewards and punishments. The Sadducees in the time of our Saviour were not a numerous sect, but they were rich and powerful. Their tenets were, in effect, those of the careless worldlings of every age, seeking after present pleasures by indulging the lusts of the flesh, and driving away the thoughts of eternity. Yes: there is many a Christian Sadducee! We need not go far to find those who deny Christ by their works and doctrines, while they call themselves by his name; to say nothing of the sensual and bigoted infidel, who is a Sadducee in doctrine as well as in practice. The Sadducees much resembled the heathen epicurean philosophers. They joined the Pharisees in rejecting the spiritual kingdom of our Lord, because they desired to share the worldly glory of an earthly monarch. They did not believe in the resurrection, nor in the separate existence of the soul;

they contended for free-will, so as to deny any particular interference of Divine providence. We need not further notice their impious blasphemies.

The HERODIANS were a political rather than a religious party. They were so called because they were willing to agree with Herod, in submitting to a foreign and heathen power, and in some respects to adopt heathen customs and idolatrous practices. By the "leaven of Herod," (Mark viii, 15,) probably is intended a willingness, from worldly policy, to participate in anything wrong. This party, it is supposed, were mostly Sadducees.

The ESSENES are not directly named in the New Testament, but are thought to be referred to in some passages, as Col. ii, 18-23, and are noticed by Philo and by Josephus. They were free both from the hypocrisy of the Pharisees and the open profligacy of the Sadducees. They rejected the traditions, and were more strict as to moral conduct than as to ceremonial observances. They offered gifts at the temple, but not sacrifices. They lived in a state of equality, and only followed agriculture, or such mechanical arts as were of a peaceful nature. None of them would be concerned in acts of violence or warfare, nor would they make weapons of war. But these laudable and good principles were carried out into a blamable austerity; and their doctrines were mixed with many superstitions, which are reproved by the apostle in the passage above-mentioned. They also were imbued with spiritual pride, though of a different character from that of the Pharisees. The Therapeuta were a branch of the Essenes, who resided in Egypt, and were still more rigid in their observances, strictly avoiding intercourse with other men.

The name

The SCRIBES were an order of learned men. is not that of a sect, but of an office. They were of the tribe of Levi, and their professed business was to write copies of the law. But it is thought that some scribes for civil purposes were of other tribes, mostly of Simeon. Before the invention of printing, the employment of a scribe was honorable and profitable. The scribes were also expositors of the law. When prophecy had ceased, they took upon themselves to interpret difficulties in the sacred books. Hence they assumed considerable authority, and possessed great power in a nation still professing to be regulated ac