£7,000 a year for Cinchona bark, in addition to about £25,000 for quinine.1 After some unsatisfactory endeavours on the part of the British Government to obtain plants and seeds through the intervention of H. M. Consuls in South America, Mr. Clements Robert Markham offered his services, which were accepted. Mr. Markham, though not a professed botanist, was well qualified for the task by a previous acquaintance with the country and people of Peru and Bolivia, and by a knowledge of the Spanish and Quichua languages,—and even more so by a rare amount of zeal, intelligence, and forethought. Being fully aware of the difficulties of the undertaking, he earnestly insisted that nothing should be neglected which could ensure success; and in particular made repeated demands for a steam-vessel to convey the young plants across the Pacific to India, which unfortunately were not complied with. He further urged the desirableness of not confining operations to a single district, but of endeavouring to procure by different collectors all the more valuable species. The prudence of this latter suggestion was evident, and Markham was enabled to engage the services of Richard Spruce, the distinguished botanist, then resident in Ecuador, who expressed his readiness to undertake a search for the Red Bark trees (C. succirubra) in the forests of Chimborazo. He also secured the co-operation of G. J. Pritchett for the neighbourhood of Huanuco, and of two skilful gardeners, John Weir and Robert Cross. The last-named was employed in 1861 to procure seeds of C. officinalis from the Sierra de Cajanuma near Loxa, and in 1863-64 those of C. Pitayensis from the province of Pitayo in Ecuador.2 Markham reserved for himself the border-lands of Peru and Bolivia, in order to obtain C. Calisaya; and for this purpose started from Islay in March 1860. Arriving in the middle of April by way of Arequipa and Puno, at Crucero, the capital of the province of Carabaya, he made his way to the village of Sandia, near which he met with the first specimens of Cinchona in the form of the shrubby variety of C. Calisaya, termed Josephiana. He afterwards found the better variety a. vera, and also C. ovata R. et P., C. micrantha R. et P., and C. pubescens Vahl. Of these sorts, but chiefly of the first three, 456 plants were shipped at Islay in June 1860. In consequence of the hostile attitude of the people, and the jealousy of the Bolivian Government, lest an important monopoly should be broken up, added to the difficulties arising from insalubrious climate and the want of roads, the obstacles encountered by Markham were very great, and no attempt could be made to wait for the ripening of the seeds of the Calisaya, which takes place in the month of August.3 The expedition of Spruce was successful, but was also attended with much difficulty and danger, of which there are vivid pictures in the 1 In 1870, the Indian Government purchased no less than 81,600 ounces of sulphate of quinine, besides 8,832 ounces of the sulphates of cinchonine, cinchonidine and quinidine. The quantities bought in subsequent years have been much smaller until the present year (1874). 2 Report on the Expedition to procure seeds of C. Condaminea [1862]; also Report to the Under Secretary of State for India on the 3 Great difficulty was at first experienced in successfully conveying living Cinchona plants to India, even in Wardian cases; and the collections formed by Hasskarl, Markham, and Pritchett almost all perished after reaching their destination (Markham's letter, 26 Feb. 1861). But the propagation by seed has proved very rapid. interesting narratives by himself and by Cross, published in the Parliamentary Returns of 1863 and 1866.1 The service entrusted to Pritchett was also efficiently performed; and he succeeded in bringing to Southampton, six cases containing plants of C. micrantha and C. nitida, besides a large supply of seeds. Some important supplies of plants and seed for British India have likewise been obtained from the Dutch plantations in Java. Seeds of C. lancifolia, the tree affording the valuable bark of New Granada, were procured through Dr. Karsten. Those of an excellent variety of C. Calisaya, obtained in the Bolivian province of Caupolican in 1865 by Mr. Charles Ledger,2 have afforded trees which in Java have yielded bark of extraordinary goodness. It is probable that this variety will henceforth be very largely cultivated, especially in the Dutch plantations. Previously to the arrival in India of the first consignment of plants, careful inquiries were instituted from a meteorological and geological point of view, as to the localities most adapted for the cultivation. This resulted in the selection for the first trial, of certain spots among the Neilgherry (or Nilgiri) Hills on the south-west coast of India and in the Madras Presidency. Of this district, the chief town is Ootacamund (or Utakamand), situated about 60 miles south of Mysore and the same distance from the Indian Ocean. Here the first plantation was established in a woody ravine, 7,000 feet above the sea-level, a spot pronounced by Mr. Markham to be exceedingly analogous, as respects vegetation and climate, to the Cinchona valleys of Carabaya. Other plantations were formed in the same neighbourhood, and so rapid was the propagation, that in September 1866, there were more than 1 millions of Cinchona plants on the Neilgherry Hills alone. The species that grows best there is C. officinalis. The number was stated to be in 1872, 2,639,285, not counting the trees of private planters. The largest are about 30 feet high, with trunks over 3 feet in girth. The area of the Government plantations on the Neilgherry Hills is 950 acres.4 Plantations have also been made in the coffee-producing districts of Wynaad, and in Coorg, Travancore and Tinnevelly, in all instances we believe, as private speculations. Cinchona plantations have been established by the Government of India in the valleys of the Himalaya in British Sikkim," and some have been started in the same region by private enterprise. In the former there were on the 31 March, 1870, more than 1 millions of plants permanently placed, the species growing best being C. succirubra and C. Calisaya. The Cinchona plantation of Rungbi near Darjiling (British Sikkim) covered in 1872, 2,000 acres. In the Kangra valley of the Western Himalaya, plantations have been commenced, as well as in the Bombay Presidency, and in British Burma. 1 Correspondence relating to the introduction of the Chinchona Plant into India, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 20 March, 1863 and 18 June, 1866. 2 Pharm. Journ., July 12, 1873. 25. 3 Blue Book (Chinchona Cultivation) 1870. p. 30.-A name that must always be remembered in connection with the Neilgherry plantations, is that of William Graham McIvor, who by his rare practical skill and sagacity in the cultivation and management of the tree, has rendered most signal services in its propagation in India. 4 Moral and material progress and condition of India during 1871-72, presented to Parliament 1873. p. 33. 5 The first annual Report dates from 1862 to 1863. Ceylon offers favourable spots for the cultivation of Cinchona, in the mountain region which occupies the centre of the island, as at Hakgalle near Neuera-Ellia, 5,000 feet above the sea, where a plantation was formed by Government in 1861. The production of bark has been taken up with spirit by the coffee-planters of Ceylon. The Government of India has acted with the greatest liberality in distributing plants and seeds of Cinchona, and in promoting the cultivation of the tree among the people of India; and it has freely granted supplies of seed to other countries. The plantations of Java commenced by Hasskarl, increased under Junghuhn's management to such an extent, that in December 1862 there were 1,360,000 seedlings and young trees, among which however, the more valuable species, as C. Calisaya, C. lancifolia, C. micrantha and C. succirubra, were by far the least numerous, whereas C. Pahudiana of which the utility was by no means well established, amounted to over a million. The disproportionate multiplication of this last was chiefly due to it quickly yielding an abundance of seeds, and to its rapid and vigorous growth. Another defect in the early Dutch system of cultivation arose from the notion that the Cinchona requires to be grown in the shade of other trees, and to a less successful plan of multiplying by cuttings and layers. These and other matters were the source of animated and often bitter discussions, which terminated on the one hand by the death of Junghuhn in 1864, and on the other by the skilful investigations of De Vry. This eminent chemist was despatched by the Government of Holland in 1857 to Java, that he might devote his chemical knowledge to the investigation of the natural productions of the island, including the then newly introduced Cinchona. In connexion with the latter, De Vry did not confine his attention to Java, but visited the plantations of Ceylon and Ootacamund, thereby gathering information that was utilized to the best advantage. In fact under K. W. van Gorkom, who was appointed superintendent in 1864, the Dutch plantations have assumed a very prosperous state. They are now rich in C. Calisaya, which thrives there better than C. officinalis; while the propagation of C. Pahudiana has been abandoned since the year 1862.2 The history of the transplantation of the Cinchona has been made. the subject of an exhaustive report laid before the Société d'Acclimatation of France, by Delondre and Soubeiran,3 in which are recorded the attempts that have been made to introduce the tree into Brazil, Mexico, the West Indies, and even into the warmer parts of Europe. Cinchona Bark from the Indian plantations began to be brought into the London market in 1867, and now arrives in constantly increasing quantities. Description (A). Of Cinchona Barks generally.—In the development of their bark, the various species of Cinchona exhibit considerable 1 Up to January 1870, more than 178,000 des Cinchonas dans les Indes néerlandaises et plants had been distributed from the Neilanglaises, Paris 1868. gherry plantations to private individuals. 2 Yet the plantations are maintained, and the bark, which is of good appearance, is brought in some quantity into the European market. Though poor in alkaloids, it is rich in cincho-tannic acid. 3 De l'introduction et de l'acclimatation 4 When I was in London, in August 1867, I went to Finsbury Place, to meet Mr. Spruce, and was happy enough to find there also Mr. Howard, who presented Mr. S. and myself with market samples of the first importation of C. succirubra, from Denison plantation, Ootacamund.-F. A. F. diversity. Many are distinguished from an early stage by an abundant exfoliation of the outer surface, while in others this takes place to a smaller degree, or only as the bark becomes old. The external appearance of the barks varies therefore very much, by reason of the greater or less development of the suberous coat. The barks of young stems and branches, have a greyish tint more or less intense, while the outer bark of old wood displays the more characteristic shades of brown or red, especially after removal of the corky layers. In the living bark, these colours are very pale, and only acquire their final hue by exposure to the air, and drying. Some of them however are characteristic of individual species, or at least of certain groups, so that the distinctions originated by the bark-collectors of pale, yellow, red, &c.1 and adopted by druggists, are not without reason. In texture, the barks vary in an important manner by reason of diversity in anatomical structure. Their fracture especially, depends upon the number, size and arrangement of the liber fibres, as will be shown in our description of their microscopic characters. The taste in all species is bitter and disagreeable, and in some there is in addition a decided astringency. Most species have no marked odour, at least in the dried state. But this is not the case in that of C. officinalis, the smell of which is characteristic. (B). Of the Barks used in pharmacy. For pharmaceutical preparations as distinguished from the pure alkaloids and their salts, the Cinchona barks employed are chiefly of three kinds. 1. Pale Cinchona Bark, Loxa Bark, Crown Bark.2-This bark, which previous to the use of quinine and for long afterwards was the ordinary Peruvian Bark of English medicine, is only found in the form of quills, which are occasionally as much as a foot in length, but are more often only a few inches or are reduced to still smaller fragments. The quills are from down to of an inch in diameter, often double, and variously twisted and shrunken. The thinnest bark is scarcely stouter than writing paper; the thickest may be of an inch or more. The pieces have a blackish brown or dark greyish external surface, variously blotched with silver-grey, and often beset with large and beautiful lichens. The surface of some of the quills is longitudinally wrinkled and moderately smooth; but in the majority it is distinctly marked by transverse cracks, and is rough and harsh to the touch. The inner side is closely striated and of a bright yellowish brown. The bark breaks easily with a fracture which exhibits very short fibres on the inner side. It has a well-marked odour sui generis, and an astringent bitter taste. Though chiefly afforded by C. officinalis, some other species occasionally contribute to furnish the Loxa Bark of commerce, as shown in the conspectus at p. 318. 2. Calisaya Bark, Yellow Cinchona Bark. This bark, which is the most important of those commonly used in medicine, is found in flat 1 The following are common terms in reference to the barks of Peru :-Amarilla (yellow), blanca (white), colorada or roja (red), naranjada (orange), negrilla (brown). 2 Cortex Cinchona pallida; F. Quinquina Loxa; G. Loxachina. The term Crown Bark was originally restricted to a superior sort of Loxa Bark, shipped for the use of the royal family of Spain. 3 In the old collections of the Royal College of Physicians, there are specimens of very thick Loxa Bark, of a quality quite unknown there at the present day. They are doubtless the produce of ancient trees, such as were noticed by La Condamine. 4 Cortex Cinchona flava, Cortex China regius; F. Quinquina Calisaya; G. Königschina. pieces (a.), and in quills (B.), both afforded by C. Calisaya Wedd., though usually imported separately. a. Flat Calisaya-is in irregular flat pieces, a foot or more in length by 3 to 4 inches wide, but usually smaller, and to of an inch in thickness; devoid of suberous layer and consisting almost solely of liber, of uniform texture, compact, and ponderous. Its colour is a rusty orange-brown, with darker stains on the outer surface. The latter is roughened with shallow longitudinal depressions, sometimes called digital furrows. The inner side has a wavy, close, fibrous texture. The bark breaks transversely with a fibrous fracture; the fibres of the broken ends are very short, easily detached, and with a lens are seen to be many of them faintly yellowish and translucent. A well-marked variety known as Bolivian Calisaya, is distinguished for its greater thinness, closer texture, and for containing numerous laticiferous ducts which are wanting in common flat Calisaya bark. B. Quill Calisaya-is found in tubes to 1 inch thick, often rolled up at both edges, thus forming double quills. They are always coated with a thick, rugged, corky layer, marked with deep longitudinal and transverse cracks, the edges of which are somewhat elevated. This suberous coat which is silvery white or greyish, is easily detached, leaving its impression on the cinnamon-brown middle layer. The inner side is dark brown and finely fibrous. The transverse fracture is fibrous but very short. The same bark also occurs in quills of very small size, and is then not distinguishable with certainty from Loxa bark. 3. Red Cinchona Bark.-Though still retaining a place in the British Pharmacopoeia, this is by far the least important of the Cinchona barks employed in pharmacy. But as the tree yielding it (C. succirubra), is now being cultivated on a large scale in India, the bark may probably come more freely into use. Red Bark of large stems, which is the most esteemed kind, occurs in the form of flat or channelled pieces, sometimes as much as an inch in thickness, coated with their suberous envelope which is rugged and warty. Its outermost layer in the young bark has a silvery appearance. The inner surface is close and fibrous and of a brick-red hue. The bark breaks with a short fibrous fracture.2 Some very fine Red Bark recently imported from Ceylon (1873), is in stout channelled or quilled pieces 20 inches long, internally of a reddish brown. It is stated to be rich in alkaloids, two-fifths of which are quinine and quinidine; and has been sold in London at a high price. (C). Of the Barks not used in pharmacy.-Among the non-officinal barks, the most important are afforded by Cinchona lancifolia Mutis and C. Pitayensis Wedd., natives of the Cordilleras of Columbia. The These barks are largely imported and used for making quinine, the former under the names of Columbian, Carthagena, or Caqueta bark. It varies much in appearance, but is generally of an orange-brown; the corky coat, which scales off easily, is shining and whitish. barks of C. lancifolia often occur in fine large quills or thick flattish pieces. Their anatomical structure agrees in all the varieties which we have examined, in the remarkable number of thick-walled and tangentially 1 From the notion that they resemble the marks left by drawing the fingers over wet clay. 2 Thick Red Bark that happens to have a very deep and brilliant tint, is eagerly bought at a high price for the Paris market. |