the attack on Casa Blanca, we think not. Our friends on the negative will urge that France lock up the treasures of the Moroccan mountains and the wealth of her arable lands, abandon this North African Empire which has been in the process of formation since the days of the great Napoleon, compromise her great civilizing task of three-fourths of a century, and cringe before the German Kaiser's threat of war. But when my colleague has shown you the present inability of Germany to carry out this threat, I believe you will agree with us that France, at the expiration of this Algeciras Convention in 1911, should rise to her opportunities, recall Delcassé, whom she so ignobly dismissed at the behest of Germany, and thus regain her position of international dignity.

CHAPTER XVII

DEVELOPMENT OF A SPEECH FROM A BRIEF

Introduction. Although we have already studied the rules for phrasing (Chapter X), the successful application of these rules to argumentative speeches of greater length seems to call for further instruction and illustration.

In this chapter we shall learn how to develop a speech from a brief so as to increase the impression of unity, coherence, and emphasis which we have already attempted to secure in the brief.

I. UNITY

Unity of Each Part. — In the first place, the speaker should see to it that each part of the speech is a unit in itself. This can best be done by the frequent use of summaries. In our study of the two-minute speech, we found that it is necessary to make some reference to the main thought both at the beginning and at the end of the speech. In a longer speech, we should summarize, not only at the beginning and at the end of the whole speech, but we should summarize each main division and each subdivision as we take it up and as we leave it.

The question may arise in the mind of the student: "How many parts shall I have in my speech, or how often shall I summarize?" The number of summaries will depend upon the importance which the speaker attaches to each subhead. It would be safe to say that a summary

sentence should occur at the beginning and at the end of whatever material would be placed in a paragraph if the speech were written.

If a speaker were developing an eight-minute speech from a brief, he might divide his time in one of several ways. Let us look at two suggestions for a division of time.

In each of these cases the speaker, if he were writing the speech, might form each division into one or more paragraphs according to the nature of the material.

Each Unit as a Part of the Whole. In the second place, the speaker should make it evident that each smaller unit is a definite and necessary part of the larger unit. He should occasionally throw glances back over the whole field and in this way reveal the bearing of each part upon his main proposition, A young speaker often neglects to point out that each bit of evidence proves a subordinate argument which, in turn, supports the main proposition. By so doing he places upon his auditors the duty of unifying his material.

Necessity of Repetition. All experienced speakers and writers have realized the necessity of frequent repetitions. Even the most intelligent people are rarely impressed by an idea which is stated but once, and this is naturally more true of oral than of written expression. The need of constant reiteration is rather humorously

illustrated by a story which Josiah Royce of Harvard University tells about himself. He had written an extensive work on philosophy and had submitted the manuscript to a friend for criticism. After reading it the friend said, "The only fault I find is this: in connection with every step, you tell us that you intend to say a certain thing; then you tell us what it is that you intend to say; then you say it; then you tell us that you have said it; and then you tell us what it is that you have said." "Well," said Professor Royce, good-humoredly, "if, in the end, you know what I did intend to say, I am satisfied."

II. COHERENCE

Transitions. We have already learned how to make sentences hang together by means of connective words and phrases and by the use of parallel construction. (Chapter X, Division II.) In the longer discourse, the speaker must cause the paragraphs to hang together also. This can be accomplished by the use of the transition sentence, a sentence which occurs at the beginning of a paragraph and which performs a double function. It echoes the thought of the preceding paragraph and introduces the central thought of the paragraph to which it belongs. Occasionally a transition which joins paragraphs is composed of more than one sentence. The hanging together of main divisions is accomplished by the use of transition paragraphs. A transition paragraph makes reference to the idea which is most vital in the preceding division and gives one a bird's-eye view of the line of thought which is to be carried out in the following division. Their Value. The word transition means "a crossing over." If the speaker would have his hearers follow him

without effort, he should, by means of transitions, build bridges, as it were, upon which they may cross easily from one idea to the next. He should be careful, however, to see that the transitions are natural and not forced. This will not be difficult if the ideas are so arranged and phrased that each leads naturally to the next, for as Cicero says, "Stones well hewn unite of themselves and without the aid of cement."

III. EMPHASIS

Proportion. The emphatic or forceful speaker pays due regard to the question of proportion; that is, he devotes a larger amount of time and care to those ideas which are difficult to comprehend and touches more lightly those which are easy to grasp. The young speaker, on the other hand, is tempted to elaborate on those phases of his subject which are most familiar to him or which give him an opportunity for eloquence.

Variety. Again, the emphatic or forceful speaker seeks variety. No matter how numerous may be his transitions and his summaries, he does not express the same idea twice in the same words. It is only by the repetition of the same idea in varied form that the speaker can drive home his thought with telling effect. Charles James Fox, the great English orator, laid it down as the great principle for one who wished to leave an impression that he turn the same idea around many times and that he hold it up in many different lights.

The emphatic speaker uses every possible means of securing variety. He employs the various kinds of sentence structure (Chapter X, Division III, Variety in Sentence Form). He studies to use the law of climax in