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(b) As far as a distinction is to be marked in the use of

(man) and min, the former is employed where the attention is to be directed to something near at hand or very important, requiring a vividly demonstrative term, as 3 by this (is) that great sea, Ps. 104. 25; even that Sinai, Judg. 5.5; this our bread, Josh. 9. 12. But if the reference be to a more

distant object, with the article prefixed (1) is employed, which is equivalent to the Lat. ille, Gr. EKELVOS. This long word, however, which is without distinction of gender, and without a corresponding plural, is not common; more usually the lighter, pl. p, according to § 30. I. 2. c, is put in apposition with a preceding substantive by way of referring to a remoter object. Thus while But

.in those days בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם in these days, we find בַּיָּמִים הָאֵלֶּה we have

neither these nor other demonstratives are ever used correlatively, as this-that in English.

(c) The demonstrative ♫ is often used without distinction of gender or num

ber, as a mere adverb in statements of time, where its effect is to refer the period more definitely to the present, or to give it a more marked specialty, as

עַתָּה זֶה זֶה יָמִים רַבִּים; this or these seventy years זֶה שִׁבְעִים שָׁנָה ; at this very time

these

many days. Thus also in en ecce! see there!

(d) The fem. form it is contracted from from it, a form originally masculine, just as yet remains of the common gender. See it Hos. 7. 16, Fit Eccl. 2. 2, 24. Occasionally both and are employed as neuters, as in Judg. 18. 4.

(e) An originally demonstrative pronoun, but one which has at present lost itscharacter as such, is,, with suff. i;i; ii; İN; İN; DEON;

In its radical import it seems to correspond very .(אֶתְהֶן seldom) אֹתָן אֹתָם

אֵת

In common use .זאת

nearly with the Gr. airós, but it hardly ever occurs in this its stronger and more native sense. See Ezek. 47. 20, where stands for MI its significance is so weak that it is employed only in connection with a noun or pronoun, as this very thing. See Gesen. Lex. in.

III. Relative Pronouns.

We have remarked above (§ 29. 6.) that the Article occasionally supplies the place of a Relative Pronoun, as on which compasseth,

that which creeps; but the distinguishing word of this class in Hebrew is who, which, used in both genders and numbers. It frequently occurs, especially in elliptical phrases, where the antecedent is omitted, in conjunction with the prefixes 2, 5, 3, 2, as N in which, according to which, to whom. It is not unfrequently met with in the abbreviated form of,,,, the falling away and the being resolved into the following consonant, while

אֲשֶׁר לֹא נְתָבָכוּ for שָׁלֹא נְתָנְנוּ only its firmest element (e) is retained, as

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,till that I arose אֲשֶׁר קַמְתִּי for שַׁקַמְתִּי ;6 .2 .eve waited for, Lam

Judg. 5. 7.

Perhaps the Particle (Lat. qui, Pers. ki) is properly to be ranked among the original relative pronouns in Hebrew, but in ordinary usage it is employed as a particle signifying that, so that, because, &c., a sense in which also as equivalent to the Gr. 1, is often used, as Est. 3. 4, 'For he told him that he was a Jew.' The office of the Relative is also frequently performed by the Demonstratives,, and, the proper Relative being understood, as the people which thou hast purchased, for

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מָה

IV. Interrogative Pronouns.

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1. The Interrogative Pronouns are two, viz. " who? applied to persons, and (and ) what? applied to things; as who ♫ art thou? what shall I say? Not unfrequently, however, ne, 2, or 2, and sometimes also ", are used rather as interrogative or interjectional particles than as strict pronouns, as in how good! how awful! how excellent (is) thy name! Both these pronouns occur, moreover, occasionally in an indefinite sense where no question is asked, equivalent to the Lat. quis, quæ, quid; Eng. who, what; as we know not who put our money in our sacks, Gen. 43. 22; i to wit what would be done to him, Ex. 2. 4.

2. As to the punctuation, although the Interrogative is most frequently characterized by Kamets, particularly before & and unaccompanied by () yet in certain circumstances we find Pattah or Segol more usual. (a) When connected by Makkeph to a word beginning with or Pattah is sometimes employed, as what it is, Ps. 39. 5; 3 what prevarication! Josh. 22. 16; occasionally also without Makkeph, as on what is my sin? Gen. 31. 36. (b) When followed by a Guttural with Kamets, and sometimes by or without it, Segol usually occurs, doubtless for the sake of euphony, i. e. to prevent the confounding of similar sounds,

what מָה עֲרֹנִי ;1 .32 .what has happened to him ? Ex מֶה הָיָה לוֹ as

(is) my crime? 1 Sam. 20. 1; who am I? Ex. 3. 11. And so occasionally where a Guttural does not follow, as in Ps. 4. 3; Job 7. 21; p n 2 Kings 1. 7. (c) For the most part, however, when followed by a non-guttural, takes Pattah,

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and the final weak (§ 26. 2.), the initial (§ 12. 6.), as

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Ps. 133. 1.

not being regarded in the pronunciation letter of the following word takes Dagesh Gen. 12. 18; Gen. 21. 17; i

In many instances of this nature the , rejecting the , is assimilated with the ensuing word (§ 12. 6.), as

. מַה־תְּלָאָה for מַתְּלָאָה ; 15 .3 .Is מַה־כָּכֶם for מַכָּכֶם ; 2 .4 .Ex מַה־זֶה for

(d) In receiving the prepositions,,, it takes either Kamets or Segol, as 22 Ex. 22. 26; 2 Gen. 47. 8; Zech. 7. 3; 3 Ps. 49. 6; and 3 1 Sam. 1. 8.

CHAPTER IV.

§ 31. THE VERB.

1. In all languages the Verb (action) is, from its very nature, and according to its designation (Lat. Verbum, the word), the most important part of speech; but in Hebrew it acquires an additional title to this character, not only from the fact that it constitutes the parent source from which many nouns and particles are derived, but also from the fact that it exercises a controlling influence over the forms of other classes of words not so derived, which are still treated as if originating in verbal roots (§ 28. 1, 2). We have indeed remarked above (§ 28. 1.), that in the theory of forms, or in a philosophical view of the genesis of the language, both the verb and the noun are to be traced to a common abstract root, which may be nominally or verbally developed by means of certain vowels and the peculiar position of the tone. But although this may hold good as a general principle, yet there are doubtless many cases where the verb is really primitive, and the noun derived directly from it, as nap a key, from n to open; a mortar, from win to pound, to bruise. In other cases it is equally clear that the reverse of this process takes place. Thus, as the existence of seed is necessarily prior to the act of sowing it, and the existence of a tent to the act of pitching it, we cannot doubt that the verbs to scw, and to pitch a tent, are derived from seed, and is a tent. But this latter class of cases is comparatively rare, and of the two the verb is by far the most frequently to be regarded as the primitive. A few instances of a very peculiar nature occur, in which a kind of reflex derivation is to be recognized. Thus, to be white, whence brick (made of white clay), and thence again to make brick

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to increase, to multiply, whence a fish, (from their rapid multiplication), and thence again to fish.

2. The simple primitive letters of any root become distinguished as a verb, by assuming a certain set of vowels, of which the principal one is pronounced after the second radical. This, as might be expected in giving the simplest signification of the verb, is the simplest or most spontaneous of the vowels, viz. a. Thus in the Pattah is really the primary and most important vowel, the genuine form being, and the Kamets under the first letter merely a foretone, created, according to § 21. 3, by the action of the tone falling upon the last syllable. This will be more evident if the word be pronounced, as it ought to be, with a decided accent on that syllable, Qatál, which is little more than Qtál. This dominant vowel, however, may be changed, as it often is, according to the active or passive modification of the idea (§ 31. 3). In the simplest form of the noun, on the other hand, the tone is drawn back to the beginning, as qétel, where the last vowel is equally adventitious with the Kamets in the instance above (§ 8. 7.). The former pronunciation, which lays the stress upon the final syllable, is supposed to be better adapted to the energetic idea of action or motion peculiar to the verb, while the latter, which reverses the emphasis, is more suited to express the intransitive state of rest which constitutes the nominal idea. This is somewhat confirmed by a similar usage obtaining in our own language, as contract, cóntract; recórd, récord; subject, súbject, &c.

3. It is usual to speak of the radical consonants of any verb, together with certain vowels, as the ground-form, and this may be either the third person singular of the preterite (3pp), or the infinitive construct (Sp), which differ only in their vowels. The last is more particularly entitled to this designation, from its containing the simple abstract idea of the root, and from the future's being formed from it in the manner described § 34. 2. The original letters constituting the root or stem of a verb, are termed radicals, while those which are added for purposes of inflection are termed serviles—a distinction which has been already explained, §4. f. To distinguish the radicals from each other it is common to designate them, according to the order of reading, as 1st, 2d, and 3d radical. Thus into break, is the first radical, the second, and the third.

4. When the simple idea of a verbal root is conceived of under new modifications, as of action or passion, augmentation or diminution, &c., new forms naturally arise suited to these several variations of the sense. They originate in one or the other of the three following ways; (1) By the repetition or reduplication of one or more of the radical sounds giving rise to what are termed intensive forms, as (pp) to kill with violence, to murder, from to kill; to dash in pieces, to shiver, from to break, where the method is by reduplication; and E to be at rest, to grow green, 3in to bring forth, where the method is that of repetition of the last radical. Very rarely, and with great emphasis, are the two last sounds repeated, as to go round and round, spoken of the beating of the heart, Ps. 38. 11. (2) By an external accession or affix superadding a new and modifying sense to the original idea. Thus 】 gives a passive, ♬ a causative, and a reciprocal or reflexive signification to the root. (3) By internal changes of the vowels within the compass of the triliteral roots, as bup, bup, bup, bup, bup, &c.; in respect to all which classes of forms full details will be given in their proper place.

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5. The relation, however, of the various formations to their several roots, very much depends upon the nature of the radical sounds. For the formation is most regular, and in general most perfect, in roots consisting of three firm permanent consonants, which are most capable of all internal and external changes by way of flexion, as,

But although the regular formation is mainly adapted to .מֶלֶךְ דָּבָר

these as the normal roots, yet there is a very large number of roots which are lacking more or less in their full complement of firm sounds, and the formation of which is subject to special laws founded upon their peculiarities as being weaker than others and more prone to quiesce. These are,

(a) Roots which embrace, as to their power, three firm sounds, but which in many cases actually exhibit but two, as 7 mad, pal. But as the formation according to analogy requires the developement of three sounds, the flexion proceeds on a reduplication of the second radical, so that the living root is madd, pall. These roots are indeed in many points inflected according to the regular forms, but as the repetition of the same sounds in immediate succession has something disagreeable in it, there is a tendency to merge the separate sound of the two last radicals in one whenever it is possible. Hence

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