8. Numerous instances, however, occur, in which the distinction of gender is by no means fixed and definite either by the sense or form, and which for this reason are usually said in most grammars to be of the common gender, from their being found sometimes in the one and sometimes in the other. This is particularly the case with the names of classes of animals, as neat cattle (Lat. bos),

camels generally masc., but fem. in hip

milch camels; so

small cattle; in like manner also some few other words, as a concubine, applied occasionally to a male, a little boy and a little girl in the Pentateuch, but in the other books is appropriated to the latter.

9. As to signification, the Plural is used with a latitude unknown to most other languages. Indeed in many cases where it is em. ployed they would use the singular.

(a) A peculiar use of the plural is to comprehend isolated particu lars under a more general idea, yet so that the general or collective idea predominates over that of the several particulars. In this sense the plural approaches very near to the idea of the abstract, which is usually expressed by the feminine, as darkness, tenebræ; be

sacred הַדְרַת קדֶשׁ and חַדְרֵי קֹדֶשׁ,.id חֲשֵׁכָה .sides which we have fem ,love דדים and אֲהָבִים,loveliness נַעֲמָנִים,life חַיִּים ornaments ; thus too ,oppression עֲשְׁקִים,youth עֲלוּמִים,death מוֹתִים ,delight, delicia מַעֲדָנִים .deceit תַּעְתָּעִים,ransom פְּדוּרִים

(b) Many names for regions not desert prefer the plural, inasmuch as such a region may be conceived as in fact consisting of a number of single things there assembled, as in the hinder part, the anterior part, heaven, properly superiora, in lower parts, inferiora. In like manner greater things cohering together but which are infinitely divisible, as water, always in the plural; ninin wall, often in the plural like mænia; so also articles of commerce which are sent in small pieces, as θυμιάματα, &c.

,spices נְכֹאת,aloes אֲהָלִים

(c) One of the most remarkable usages in regard to the plural is its employment to denote the idea of extent, greatness, dignity, dominion, majesty, often technically termed pluralis excellentiæ. Among the most prominent examples of this nature are the remarkable words God, Lord, and several others, of which a more detailed account is given in the Syntax.

§ 126. Dual.

1. The Dual. The Dual is formed by adding to the singular, whether of the masculine or the feminine, as bi day, du.

(pl.

ending in require the to be changed into before the dual ter

Nouns .נְהִשְׁתַּיִם .brass, du נְחֹשֶׁת אַלְפַּיִם .thousand, du אֶלֶף יָמִים

מָאתַיִם .hundred, du מֵאָה שְׁנָתַיִם .year, du שָׁנָה mination is affixed, as

The following with a few others form their dual by adding - to the plural instead of the singular, as in a wall, pl. niin, du. bitinn, Niq myriad, pl. nixa, du. Dzpian.

2. The use of the Dual is confined to the most primitive and necessary cases of its idea. It properly represents a whole divided into two halves, and expresses the idea of a thing which is double or in pairs. Two things or persons which come together casually can never be combined by the Dual, which is by no means a mere variation of the number two, for even the numeral must be added where the number two is to be rendered very emphatic, as

two (and not more) legs; and two kings, instead of being expressed in Hebrew by the Dual, would require the phraseology □ two (of) kings. It is therefore only found in certain substantives, and has so little influence on the construction that adjective, verb, and pronoun can only be connected with it in the plural, It is thus found in the numerals two, Dr two thousand; but especially of objects

as ni lofty eyes. two hundred,

which are usually conceived together as a whole consisting of two parts, most frequently perhaps of double corporeal members, as b

the שְׁנַיִם,the hips מָתְנַיִם,the loins יְרֵכַיִם,the mostrids אַפַּיִם,the hands

teeth (the two rows), wings; moreover of utensils, as balances, a hand-mill (consisting of two pieces). In nouns which express an object by nature double, the use of the dual is so trite and established that it even occurs where the plural is properly

שִׁבְעָה עֵינַיִם ; four feet, not four pairs of feet אַרְבַּע רַגְלַיִם required, as

3. The word Jerusalem is sometimes written without the last Yod, though its point still remains, as . Why this word is used in the dual is matter of mere conjecture. As to the noun heavens, it is according to Schroeder not a dual, but a plural

having the tone on ,שָׁמִי from the obsolete singular ,(שָׁמָרִים) שְׁמָרִים

the penult in order to compensate for the elided Yod. The case is

precisely the same, he thinks, with waters, a word evidently of the same formation.

4. The vowel changes resulting from the formation of the dual are substantially the same as those in the plural, as, pl. 9, du. . To this the Segolates (§ 118. 1.) are an exception, since they do not in the dual, as in the plural, assume Sheva and Kamets, but adopt the ancient monosyllabic form as the ground of accession, as foot, (orig. form 37), 37; 17 horn (177),

.is some -ים The dual termination .אָזְנַיִם (או) ear אזן ; קַרְנַיִם too, for שְׁתֵּים; שְׁנַיִם two, for שְׁנֵים as ,..ים times contracted into יִשְׁתַּיִם

§ 127. Construct State.

1. A Noun standing alone, or considered by itself as independent of other words, is said, by Hebrew grammarians, to be in the Absolute State; but when such a noun is followed by another serving to define, restrict, or appropriate its meaning, it is said to be in the Construct State. Thus the words king, a house, in law, when standing alone are in the absolute state; they belong, so to speak, to nothing. But when put into such connexions with other words as to express the relation of possession, i. e. the relation of the Genitive in Latin and Greek, as king of Israel, house of God, law of the Lord, they are taken out of their absolute state, and put in a restricted or specified state (in statu regiminis). The consequence is a change in the first or restricted word (if mutable), and not in the second; which constitutes a marked distinction in this respect between the Hebrew and several of the later European languages.

2. As the words in the construct relation connect themselves so closely that the idea is incomplete till the second be uttered, the natural effect of this is to hurry, and therefore to shorten, the pronunciation of the first, that the voice may pass on and find its perfect rest in the second. But we have already seen (§ 27. 6, 7.) that from the principles of vocal intonation, when this is the case, a rejection of vowels wherever practicable is the necessary result. It is in fact the same as if the whole combination formed one long

* It is to be remarked, however, that the peculiarity in question is not confined to two nouns only. Instances sometimes occur of a doubly or even trebly Construct state; as in generations of the sons of Noah;

,the days of the years of the life of Abraham יְמֵי שְׁנֵי חַיֵּי אַבְרָהָם

word, i. e. the tone is carried forward to the last word or syllable, and the preceding vowels shortened or rejected according to the usual laws of the vowel-changes, § 27. 9.

3. Although the changes resulting from this cause are more especially to be seen in the vocalization, yet they are not confined to this, for the consonant endings are also frequently more or less affected by the word's going into construction, as will be evident from the rules which regulate the formation of the construct state now to be given. These are the following:

(a) Nouns having long mutable vowels in their ultimate and penultimate syllables change that in the ultimate to its correspond. ing short, while that in the penult falls away, as 777 heart of David, from 3. So with monosyllables, in hand of Jehovah,

(b) Feminine nouns ending in, change this termination into

יד from

a song of my beloved.

(c) Masculines ending in .. retain the 77, but change the Segol

מַחֲנָה ; cattle of Abrahamn מִקְנֵה אַבְרָהָם,,cattle מִקְנֶה into Tseri, as

in פִּי camp of Israel. But ng mouth always has מַחֲנֵה יִשְׂרָאֵל ,camp

the construct state.

(d) The plural ending . and the dual - are changed in the construct state into ".., while the preceding vowel or vowels, if mutable, fall away, as horses, horses of Solomon;

of strength.

hands יְדֵי חַיִל,hands יָדַיִם ; words of truth דִּבְרֵי אֱמֶת ordsי דְּבָרִים

בְּרָכוֹת ; fathers of Israel אֲבוֹת יִשְׂרָאֵל,fathers אָבוֹת struct state, as

(e) Plurals in ni suffer no terminational changes in the con

blessings, ni blessings of heaven. It will be observed, however, that the preceding vowels are changed according to analogy, or fall away.

(f). Segolate nouns (§ 118. 1.) in the singular, with the exception of those having or for their middle radical, are subject to no variation by being put in regimen, asking, king of

תּוֹךְ הַבָּן ,midst פָּרֶךְ ; house of prayer בֵּית תְּפִלָּה ,house בַּיִת Sodom, but מָוֶת .So abs

midst of the garden, where is contracted into i. death, const. in.-To this rule there are a few exceptions; as the abs. forms seed, plant, p acceptance, and vanity, drop the first vowel in the const. state, as,,, ban.