will send me a cake before my birthday. You have been idle for a long time. The farmer has married since his father's death.

II. The second manner of expressing circumstances of time is by a peculiar kind of words called ADVERBS OF TIME.

Ex.: The poor woman will soon die. Shall we say our lesson now? The soldier has told us that story before. Ice is always cold. The diligent man rises early. The fruit will be brought presently. Easter falls late. The clock will strike directly.

Several of the prepositions are also used as adverbs of time. When thus employed they become adverbs, and if translated must be rendered in another language by adverbs. In the above example, "The soldier has told us that story before," the word before which we have seen in the list of prepositions is really an adverb, for which already, another adverb of time, might be substituted.

Among adverbs of time are the following words:

To-day, to-morrow, to-night, yesterday, and similar words, are commonly reckoned among adverbs of time; but in English they are very frequently substantives. In this character they often stand as the subject of the sentence; and, at other times, assuming the genitive case, they serve to define another substantive.

Ex.: To-day is Monday. To-night is Christmas eve. Yesterday's paper is lost. To-morrow's post will bring a letter.

Every expression answering to the questions "when?" "how long?" asked with the verb, is equivalent to an adverb of time; such are, for ever, for life, of old, &c.

EXERCISE.

LESSON 65.-Write twenty sentences, and determine the predicate of each by a circumstance of time answering to the question, "when ?"

Ex.: The leaves fall in autumn. The packet has just arrived.

LESSON 66.- Write twenty sentences with a circumstance of time in the predicate answering to the question, "how long?"

Ex.: Our holydays last six weeks, God will reign for ever.

Substantives are frequently defined by an incident of time; expressed, sometimes by a substantive with a preposition following the word defined, as, a journey in summer; a walk in the morning; the races for the ensuing week; and sometimes by a substantive without preposition preceding the substantive that it defines, as a Christmas pudding; summer clothing; spring corn; the Easter-week; a morning ride; an afternoon nap. As with other substantives, defined by a substantive without the sign of the genitive case, the scholar will neglect no fair opportunity of connecting such compound words with a hyphen.

EXERCISE.

LESSON 67.-Try to define fifty substantives by some incident of time, whether expressed by a substantive with a preposition following, or by a substantive preceding the word defined.

Ex.: I. A coat for cold weather. II. A summer residence.

Circumstances of time of the third class enumerated at the commencement of this section (the number of times), are commonly expressed by words called ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY.

Ex.: We often have a holyday. A miser rarely gives alms.
The idle seldom become rich. He sometimes catches a trout.
The sparrow frequently builds in the marten's nest.
the queen once.
You shook the desk twice. The cock

crowed thrice.

I saw

After "thrice" the number of times is expressed by the definite numerals with the word "times;" four times, five times, ten times, &c. Once is also frequently employed in the sense of formerly.

Every expression answering to the question "how often?" asked with the verb, is equivalent in sense to an adverb of Frequency.

EXERCISE.

LESSON 68.-Write twenty sentences, each containing a circumstance of frequency.

Ex.: The doctor has been to Paris twice. My brother has frequently gained a prize.

LESSON 69.-Write as many sentences as you can invent, describing what you do from getting up till bedtime; and let each assertion be more accurately determined by some circumstance of time, underlined as before.

Ex.: In summer the weather is fine. I rise early. After rising
I say my prayers. Then I wash myself, &c.

The employment of adverbs is not, as might be inferred from the name, limited to indicating the circumstances of the verb. By prefixing an adverb to an adjective or a participle, we determine more closely the meaning of the latter; and by thus limiting its range, by defining, as it were, the definitive, we have additional facilities for showing the precise sense in which we wish the substantive to be understood. The following sentences contain instances of adjectives and participles used adjectively, whose meaning is more closely determined by Adverbs of Time.

Ex.: A long lost son. An oft told tale. A frequently recurring evil. A never ceasing pain. A once dear friend.

NOTE. The preposition by which a substantive, indicating a circumstance of time, is governed, is not always

expressed; as in the sentences, "we go to the play every evening :" "he visits his estates twice a year :" "I remained three months at Paris." Here the prepositions "on," "in,” "for," are understood, and the pupil will regard the substantives "evening," year," months," as governed in the accusative case by the prepositions thus understood.

SECTION XIII.

PLACE OF THE ACTION.

When we speak of an action, we frequently accompany the assertion with indications more or less direct of its locality. Three CIRCUMSTANCES of PLACE are distinguishable: the direction whence; the direction whither; and the place where. The words "whence " and "whither" are now, comparatively, but little used; which is to be regretted, for they express certain circumstances of direction much more neatly than "where," with the prepositions "from" and "to," too frequently substituted for them.

Circumstances of Place are expressed in two ways. I. By a substantive with a preposition.

II. By words called ADVERBS OF PLACE.

Prepositions are said to have expressed, originally, relations of place only; and they may all still be used to express such relations, with the exception of during, except, save, since, till (until). Of these, "during" was evidently (originally) a participle; and "except," "save," imperative forms of verbs.

The following sentences furnish instances of circumstances of place expressed by a substantive with a preposition.

Ex.: The hospital stands beside the church. The boat goes towards the cliff. A lion comes from Africa. The owl has flown into the barn. A fever is raging in that unfortunate town. The cottager has planted some pinks in his garden.

The brigand drew a pistol from his girdle. The general laid his cane upon the table. Roots grow beneath the surface. A coward is useless in battle. Modesty is pleasing in youth.

EXERCISE.

LESSON 70.-Write twenty sentences, the predicate of each containing a circumstance of place answering to the question whither? expressed by a substantive with a preposition (underlined).

Ex.: The farmer will send the colt to the fair.

LESSON 71.-Write twenty similar sentences with circumstances of place answering to the question whence?

Ex.: The government has received despatches from India. LESSON 72.-Write twenty similar sentences with circumstances of place answering to the question where ?

Ex.: Our Saviour was born in a stable.

Substantives are very commonly defined by some circumstance of locality. This may be expressed either by a substantive and preposition following the word defined: as the seat under the oak; the mill in the valley; the path across the mountains; the trees by the church; the bridge over the canal; a swim in the river; the rushes on the bank, &c. or the defining substantive, without preposition, may precede the word defined, determining it by some attribute of origin, destination, or other circumstance entirely local : as a Russia merchant; India ale; Bologna sausages; Yarmouth herrings; a Banbury cake; Portugal grapes; country, bread; sea fish; a garden chair; house lamb; ditch water; river eels. We find some such compound terms settled down into concrete words, as countryman. In some instances the definitives which thus precede their substantive readily submit to transposition, and will follow the word defined, being then governed by a preposition. Thus, instead of saying India ale, we can say ale for India; Bologna sausages may be rendered sausages from Bologna; but we cannot, instead of a Russia merchant, say a merchant to Russia. This habit of using substantives without prepositions, to define other substantives by some extraneous attribute is peculiar to our language; in translation the preposition is indispensable. Where the pupil thinks that the two terms