reference to some object other than that from which it proceeds, are incomplete in sense till such other object be named. The adverbs which thus take a complement, require that the latter be preceded by the particular preposition demanded by the adjective from which the adverb is formed, and they may therefore be called GOVERNING ADVerbs.

We sometimes find an adjective with a complement employed as an adverb, a construction to be carefully avoided, even at the risk of being thought pedantic; but in expressions where the employment of the adjective in this manner is sanctioned by a usage so general as to give unquestionable currency to the locution, the word, while describing the circumstance of an action, and not the quality of a substantive, is for the time an adverb.

The following sentences contain examples of adverbs and adjectives used adverbially, followed by a complement.

Each

The

We

Every man should live conformably to the rules of prudence.
The commanders acted independently of each other.
competitor was rewarded proportionately to his merit.
present governor acts differently from his predecessor.
have sold the goods agreeably to your instructions.
story was invented subsequently to the hero's death.
Arabs were encamped apart from the Europeans. The ad-
miral's ship was moored opposite to the battery.

EXERCISE.

This

The

LESSON 85.-Write sentences in which a circumstance of the verb is described by each of the following adverbs with a suitable complement :

Conformably, differently, apart, conjointly, pursuant, independently, agreeably, exclusively, relatively, opposite, close, separately.

SECTION XVII.

SEVERAL CIRCUMSTANCES IN THE PREDICATE.

It frequently occurs that we allude to several circumstances attendant on the same action, or that we

explain an assertion by enumerating various collateral incidents; and thus it is by no means uncommon to meet with a predicate containing several circumstantial clauses, sometimes of similar and sometimes of different kinds.

In the following sentences are circumstances of a similar kind; as, time and time, place and place, &c.

The picture was removed from the library to the parlour. The moon will set early to-night. The gun stands there in the corner. Easter falls late this year. The coach leaves daily in the morning at sunrise.

The sentences which follow contain circumstances of different kinds: as, time and place, place and manner, &c.

Snipes arrive in England in the autumn. Tigers are sometimes hunted on elephants in India. People go to church on Sundays. In the East thousands die annually from cholera. The lark sings joyously in the spring. Every evening in summer time the boys for exercise play cricket in yonder meadow.

EXERCISE.

LESSON 86.-Write twenty sentences, containing two or more circumstances, expressed either by adverbs or by circumstantial phrases, and endeavour to arrange them so that one or other of the circumstances (although belonging to the predicate) may precede the subject.

Ex.: From fear the sheep instantly ran into the fold.

SECTION XVIII.

RECAPITULATORY OBSERVATIONS UPON CHAPTER II.

We saw, at the very commencement of our studies, that in every sentence two essential parts might be distinguished, the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE, forming the principal members of the sentence. Let us reconsider briefly these two principal members of the sentence, and those subordinate members de

pendent upon them, which it has been the object of the present chapter to explain.

The SUBJECT of the sentence is a person or a thing, either material as a stone, or an ideality as ignorance; and is in language expressed by a substantive or by a pronoun, or definitive representing a substantive. Every substantive may be restricted or determined in its signification by the aid of other words. This closer determination of the sense of the substantive is called ADDITION; and all kinds of words when thus employed have been classed under the term Definitives.

Ex.: The dog barks. The watchful dog barks. The shepherd's dog barks. The house-dog barks. The dog in the manger barks.

The PREDICATE asserts an action of, or attributes a quality to, the subject. It contains two notions essentially distinct, although frequently expressed by the same word. These two distinct ideas are the assertion and the attribute, of which the former is often effected by the verb to be, the attribute being expressed by a substantive, an adjective, or a participle.

Ex.: The kitten is an animal. The kitten is playful. The kitten is playing.

Very commonly the assertion and the attribute are both expressed by the verb itself.

Ex.: The kitten plays.

Many qualities can only exist in one object referentially to other objects, and many actions asserted of the subject have a relation more or less direct to some other object. Adjectives expressing such qualities, and verbs predicating such actions require, in order to be intelligible, to be followed by words pointing out the objects to which they have relation, and the words which serve to complete the sense of such an adjective or verb form its COMPLEMENT.

Ex.: The man is desirous of applause. Catgut is capable of extension. The boy is ignorant of the danger. Few men are proof against flattery. The dog follows his master. The dog barks at the sheep. The cat plays with the mouse.

The complement is always an object, expressed by a substantive or a pronoun. When it is expressed by a substantive the sense of the latter may, as in all other cases, be more closely determined or defined by an ADDITION.

Ex.: The man is desirous of general applause. Catgut is capable of great extension. The boy is ignorant of the danger of his position. Few men are proof against flattery from their superiors. The dog followed his old master. The dog barked at the farmer's sheep. The cat plays with the luckless mouse.

The sense of the predicate may be more precisely determined by the enunciation of various CIRCUMSTANCES of locality, time, manner, and origin.

Ex.: I have been writing all the morning. The dog barks loudly. Our friends are walking in the garden. A soldier fainted from the heat.

When these circumstances are expressed by substantives, which is frequently the case, the latter may be more closely defined by Addition.

Ex.: Our friends are walking in the neighbour's garden. A soldier fainted from the excessive heat. A dog is barking loudly in the stable yard.

Some few adverbs that express of themselves an incomplete sense, require to be followed by a complement serving to render their meaning perfectly clear. As the complement must necessarily convey the idea of some object it is expressed by a substantive, or by a pronoun or other word representing a substantive.

Ex.: The victor numbered his captives exclusively of the children. He planted some trees close to the church.

The Subject and the Predicate are, as before observed, the PRINCIPAL MEMBERS of the sentence: Addition, Complement, and Circumstance, not being essential to the formation of a sentence, are called the SUBORDINATE MEMBERS of it.

We may thus distinguish in an extended simple sentence five different members, named as follows:1. SUBJECT (Nominative).

2. PREDICATE (Verb and Attribute).
3. ADDITION (Definitive).

4. COMPLEMENT (Accusative).
5. CIRCUMSTANCE (Adverb).

The SUBJECT is followed by a verb, whose number and person it governs. The PREDICATE depends upon the subject, with which it must not only agree in number and person, but, when the attribute is expressed by an adjective or by a participle, as it always is in the passive voice, these must agree with the subject in gender also. ADDITION always determines a substantive, which may however be either subject, attribute, complement, circumstance, or even another addition; substantives in all positions admitting a closer determination of the sense in which they are used.

When the addition consists of a substantive, or, in other words, when the meaning of one substantive is restricted or determined by another, the rule of general grammar requires that the determining substantive be in the genitive case; but this rule, as has been already remarked, is very frequently disregarded in English.

When the addition consists of an adjective or a participle these words agree in number, gender, and case with the substantive defined. COMPLEMENT and CIRCUMSTANCE always depend upon an adjective or a verb, with the exception of some few adverbs which demand a complement. A simple sentence may be so extended as to contain many subordinate members.

Ex.: An able officer of engineers, from the neighbouring garrison, closely watched, from an unsuspected cave in the face of the mountain, the various manoeuvres of the enemy's army in the narrow valley beyond the river.

Sentences like the above, containing many subordinate members, all intended to aid the full development of the thought, are frequently met with in reading. We should, however, avoid the introduction of too many phrases into a sentence, and especially guard against overloading it with epithets defining the substantives. The sense is often obscured by verbosity; and, even when this is not the case, a wordy style quickly fatigues the hearer or reader, from the increased attention that is necessary to track a thought through the mazes of intricately constructed sentences. When it is absolutely essential to the perfect comprehension of the thought, that several incidents should be expressed,