39. Of Greek prepositions and particles the following are to be noted: ανά up, κατά down, ἅμα simultaneously, ὁμοῦ, διά through, δίχα twofold, μɛrá with and after, very frequently indicating an alteration, mapȧ aside, against, ὑπό below, ἐν, εἰς within, ἀπό away, ἀμφί around, ἐπί upon, ἀντί opposed, ἐκ, ἐξ out of.

New formations: Doubling of the prepositions as in rapa, máр- ɛσi contra-extension.

From the Latin a, ab, abs; the primitive form is ab., Greek ȧró.

Ab stands before vowels and h, but may also occur before all consonants like a.

The form abs (aps) is met with before c, p, t: abs-tineo, abs-traho, abscedo, absque.

Shortened in as, as-pello, as-porto.

The form au in au-fero, au-fugio, is derived either from the Sanskrit ava, old high German aba- from above, or from the preposition af, -av, -au.

The ancient Latin preposition am, an corresponds to the Greek apoi, amb-io, amb-ire, am-plector, an-fractus; Sanskrit abhi, umbi, old high German umpi. Many compositions are the result of the adverbial preposition versus (from verto, adversus, aliorsum, deorsum, dextrorsum, introrsum, prorsum, rursum, retrorsum, scorsum, sinistrorsum, sursum (sub-vorsum). The function of the prepositions sub under, super over, subter below is taken for understood.

40. Very startling and barbaric are hybrid formations, which combine words or terminations from the two languages, as for instance audiphone, dentaphone, dextero-kapdía, kɛpato-globus, neonatus, lact-άywy (os), περι-vaginitis, καυτηρ-isatio, σπλην-isatio, συν-ovitis, συνοχ-al, φαρυγγ-ealis, amoeno.μavía, avr-acidus, avro-transfusion, cavern-wua (cavernom), dextrωσις (dextrosi); έρυθημα-tosum, ήπατ-isatio, lupin-ωσις tuberculosis, μουoculus, ύπερ-secretion, sub-φρεν-icus, φλυκταιν-ula, φλυκταιν-ulosa, φλεγμον-Osa, avro-mobil.

Some of these could easily be replaced by pure Greek words, as for instance : ὠτόφωνος, οδοντόφωνος, δεξιοκαρδία, κερατόσφαιζος, νεογνός, αρτιγενής, γαλακταγωγός, περικολεῖτις, καυτηρίασια, σπλήνωσια, συνῳῖτες, συνοχικός, φαρνγγώδης, τερψιμανία, αντοξικός, αὐτοδιάχυσις, σπηλαίωμα, δεξιοστροφία, ἐρυτηματώδεη, ἠπάτωσια, λύκωσις, φυματίωσις, μονόφθαλμος (ετερόφθαλμος), υπερέκκρισις, φλυκταινίς, φλυκταινώδης, φλεγμονώδης, αυτοκίνητον.

Word mutilations, such as pelys instead of pelvis, panaritium instead of paronychium (rapwvvxia), athetosis instead of adernos antimonium corrupted from the Arabic al-ithmidum, bracherium instead of brachionarium, myrinx instead of μvy, etc.

Arbitrary contractions like achrupsia instead of ȧxpwuarovia, akiurgia instead of ἀκιδοεργία, ἀκιδουργία, chrupsia instead of χρωμοψία, kinaesthesia instead of κινησιαισδησία, metopagia instead oἱ μετωποπαγία.

41. We have referred already to the new formations of the later Greek and Latin at the hands of the latinobarbari, and it stands to reason

=

that our collection could be increased indefinitely. New formations like βου-κνημία analogous to βού-Βρωστις and βουλιμία (voracious appetite) βουλιμία, βού-μασθος, ι ε άμπελος, βού-νεβρος βού-παις, βού-παλις, βοί-φθαλμον are justified. It is only with difficulty that some kind of order can be introduced into the chaos of new formations in the language of the natural sciences, but the following points may be established:

a. After proper names of known persons, inventors, etc.: Bartholinitis, Columbium, Daltonism, Galvanism, Hausmannite, Humboldtite, Mikrohm (Ohm), Mikrofarad (Farad), pasteurize, etc.

In this connection "Quadrivius" passed the following excellent remarks in the Muenchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 1896, No. 8, with reference to modern medical literature: "Few scientific nomenclatures, except perhaps the zoological and botanical, are so loaded with proper names, as the medical, which is not exactly conducive to the joy of the students. Soemmerring, and later Henle, have emphasized the unsuitability of this appellation, at least in the department of anatomy, blaming the same if for no other reason on account of its injustice, for the true merit has not always received due recognition. * * * But to put names down as suffering from inflammation, by attaching the famous termination "itis," is a linguistic outrage."

b. After deities of all mythologies: Janiceps, Pelopium, Niobium, Kastor, Pollux, Titanite, Atropa, Sisyphus, Geokronite (Kronos), etc.

c. After countries and places of origin: Bougie, tobacco, achate, cognac, uralite, etc.

d. After the origin of a natural body: Acetone, kreatin, ptoma (t)in, allyl, papaverin, etc.

e.—After a similarity: selenoid, krystalloid, geoid, hippuris.

f.-Botanical, zoological, chemical and physical properties: Acetum, chloride, bromide, gelsemism, hymenopterism, nitrobenzolism, glycerin, haematoxylin, auripigment.

g.-Object or effect: Pyknometer, rheometer, antifebrin.

h. After a system: Sulphur, copper, ether, etc., for instance: Dimethyl-amidoazo-benzol-mono--carbonic acid.

i.-Original names after iron, lead, gold.

k.-Arbitrary of doubtful origin: Alkapton, alloxur, amalgam (μáλayμa) paraffin (parum affine), merkaptan (mercurio aptum), aldehyd (alcohol dehydrogenatum), phenol (paívw, oleum), acetal (acetum and alcohol), aldoxin (hydroxylamin-aldehyd), aroph (aroma philosophorum!!), Olm.

Comparable to the riddle of the Sphinx are names such as Mangan, Opodeldock (secret name?), Galmei, Theodolite, Schoerl, Annalin, Gas (van Helmont), etc.

Often, however, combinations of a Greek nature have been coined quite regardless of whether the new formation responds to a Greek etymon or not, as is the case in haemoptoe (from aiua blood, and iʊ, spit), instead of the correct word αιμοπτυσία. For the word aiuónтoia does not exist (corresponding perhaps to dráppoia, a through stream), while proe or ptoe would not be correctly constructed from T. Further, pell-áypa is formed analogously to ποδάγρα and μελιτ-άγρα, melaneus, μελάνεος instead of μέλασμα.

Late Greek are: άνθημα (anthem), new Greek ἐξάνθημα from ἀνθέω, άνθη, άνθος. Further, baryekoia and dysekoia from βαρήκοος, δυσ-ηκους, δυσ-ηκοία from ἀκούω, etc.

From the late Latin may be mentioned words like acuitas, aplanatio (planus), anteflexio, axialis (axis), bursa, borsa, brunescens (from brunesco, brunus), ceratinare (Kepárvoç), cystin(us), congelo, crampus crispatura tendinum, contra-extension, dentinum, desodorisantia, duodenum, ergotinum, extravasatio, fracturosa pelvis, herpeticum, inositus (is, ivóc), obductio, morbilli (measles), raspatorium, scarlatina, sporulatio. We then owe to the Romanic languages words like bastoria (bistouri), cliquetis, dengue, mandrin, massage, rabot-odonto-triteur, sonde (sub-unda), spara-drap, tendon, etc. Most of the surgical instruments owe their names to the French language.

The English language has considerably contributed to the medical terms, and these contributions can usually be easily explained or translated. In isolated cases there are still remnants from the Arabic, Hebrew, old high German and Anglo-Saxon, even from the Persian, Hindostani and Japanese, from the languages of the indigenous tribes of Africa and America, which, however, can not be classified under any of the above. points. See Hyrtl, The Arabic and Hebrew Languages in Anatomy (Vienna, 1879, Braumueller), and the same author: The Old-German Technico-Anatomical Terms (1884, ib.).

The origin of most barbarisms and new formations is due to the physicians of the Middle Ages. Linguistic mal-formations have also originated with many specialists of the present time-words which, as Hyrtl asserts, are used by nobody except their authors. It is certainly true that with a knowledge of the laws of the language and the construction of words, barbarisms, in the sense of Arnobius—(Adversus gentes, lib. I, 59): Barbarismis et solecismis obsitæ sunt res vestræ, et vitiorum deformitate pollutæ, will no longer be possible. Let us hope that our present feeble attempt may contribute its mite toward this object.

Among modern physicians it was especially R. Kossmann, doctor of medicine and philology, who vigorously spoke for purity and correctness in medical language. In his "Kritische Erörterungen zur gynækologis

chen Nomenklatur," Berlin, 1896, he says on page 16: "The ever increasing importance of international congresses in recent times has made us more and more conscious of the want of a universal language in the world of science, and in medical journals complaints increase in frequency about the undue haste with which Latin has been discarded, coupled with suggestions of re-establishing it as a universal medium of communication." On the other hand, Professor A. Rose, the secretary of the German Medical Society of New York, has repeatedly proposed that Greek should be generally adopted as the language for physicians and scientists generally ("The Greeks and their Language," 1899), and the same question formed the topic of a pamphlet by Dr. jur. L. Kuhlenbeck, addressed to the "psychic nobility" (geistiger Adel of the German nation (Leipzic, W. Friedrich, 1889). Dr. Rose has rendered us noteworthy services by his contributions to Medical Notes and Queries (New York, April, 1907), by his treatise on Greek Terms in Medical Language, and his Memorial on Technical Medical Language (July, 1907). He writes. to me as follows:

"Greek is an old language, developed with logical perspicacity; above all, a language which lives, and is, therefore, capable of further development. This latter fact has been ignored by the medical nomenclators of modern times, who treated Greek as a dead language, disdaining to cast a glance over contemporaneous scientific literature or to confer with Greek colleagues. New words were formed for new conceptions with' the aid of the school lexicon, which contains but a portion of the Greek language as actually spoken. Barbarisms in large numbers were introduced into the medical language, causing much confusion. Many of these unscientific new formations do not correspond to the laws of orthography and analogy; many originally correct words were given incorrect meanings, different from what they originally expressed; others are purely hybrid, and others again are superfluous. In the present edition wrongly-formed or wronglyselected words taken from the Greek have been supplemented by those used in the Greek literature of today, and it is hoped that this new feature may serve to smooth the path to reform in medical technical language." Again Kossmann states: "We can not dispense with Greek root words. in the formation of our pathological and surgical expressions. As soon, however, as the established Greek synonyms for pathologic-surgical requirements have once been recognized as necessary, the consequence will probably be that, in the interests of linguistic correctness and beauty, one further step will be taken by establishing pure Greek synonyms for those hybrid terms which it is not absolutely necessary to change. Our attention is with increasing interest once more directed to the partly. very valuable writings of the ancients. He who studies and learns to love

the same, instead of merely glancing through their pages, will find it more and more difficult to put up with pseudo-classic nomenclature side by side with a classic one and to use a linguistic monstrosity smacking of Greek or Latin, for the designation of a scientific conception for which the simple, pure Greek expression is well known and familiar to him."

We conclude with the words of the master of Roman linguistic research (dietz, Etymol. Wörterbuch, 5th Ed., Leipzig, 1887, p. 7): “The highest aim to which etymology can lay claim is the consciousness of having acted scientifically."

For the purposes of the Linguistic Introduction and the compilation of the etymologic facts of Roth's Lexikon, the author has availed himself of the following words, aside from the medical authors of antiquity: (Medicorum græcorum opera omnia, græce et latine, Ed. Kuehn, Lips., 1821-30, Vol. 28); Eclogæ physicæ, Ed. J. G. Schneider, Jena, 1800, two volumes; Physici et medici græci minores, Ed. Ideler, Berol., 1842 two volumes; the Glossaries to Hippokrates and Galenos, Ed. Klein, Lips., 1865; Pollux Onomasticon; Hippokrates' Perceptions, selected from the Greek text, translated into German and referred to modern treatment, by Theodore Beck, Jena, 1907; H. N. Anke, Lexikograph. Bem. medizin.philolog. Inhaltes (Philol. 32); Turkish, Persian and Arabic Grammar by Wahrmund; Armenian Grammar by Huebschmann; Greek, Roman and Byzant. History of Literature by Teuffel, Mueller-Heitz, Christ and Krumbacher; Geschichte der Medizin by Hirschel, Sprengel, Haeser, August Hirsch, 1893; the unexcelled Onomatologia anatomica, by Joseph Hyrtl (Vienna, 1880); Eulenburg's Realenzyclopædie der ges. Heilkunde, third edition (Vol. I-XXVI, Berlin and Vienna, 1894-1901); A Villaret, Handwörterbuch der ges. Medizin (Stuttgart, 1888, second edition, 1899, 1900); the Greek and Latin grammars, by G. and L. Meyer, Hatzidakis, Thumb, Kuehner and Schuchardt; the Leading Principles of Greek Etymology, by G. Curtius; the Greek Etymologic Dictionary, by Pape, Prellwitz, 1892; of the German Language, by Kluge, 1889, and Tetzner, Duden, Bauer-Fromann, 1893; the lexika of Vanicek, Zehetmayr, Suhle and Schneidewin, Kumanudes, Skarlatos, Georges, Woelfflin Ducange Dieffenbach, Diez, Koerting, Sachs-Villato, Muret; Chambers' Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1884); Sophokles, Greek lexikon of the Byzant. and Roman Per., and many monographs, among which a little German book by B. Schwalbe, Elementary Greek, leading principles of Greek for the introduction of foreign words emanating from the Greek (Berlin, Reimer, 1887), which can be well recommended to the novice, and A. Hemme: Was muss der Gebildete vom Griechischen wissen? Leipzic, 1900, second edition, 1905.

In conclusion I have the pleasant duty to perform to express my heartiest thanks to Dr. Achilles Rose in New York and Basilio Leonardos, M. D., Ph. D., in Athens, for their valuable advice and contributions.