And—and is often used in poetry for both—and, or—or for either—or, and nor-nor for neither-nor: thus 1. And trump and timbrel answered them.-Scott. 2. I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move.- Walsh. II. Than-than whom."-The case of a noun or pronoun following than depends on the construction of the subsequent clause (which, however, is generally elliptical): thus 1. I esteem you more than they [esteem you]. 2. I esteem you more than them [=than I esteem them]. A peculiar construction, than whom, is exemplified in the following: Beelzebub, than whom, 1. Satan except, none higher sat.-Milton. 2. Pope, than whom few men had more vanity.-Johnson. If we substitute the personal pronoun, we shall see that the nominative case is required. Thus: "None sat higher than he," "had more vanity than he." This construction must therefore be regarded as anomalous; but it has been used by so many reputable authors that we can scarcely refuse to accept it. It is probably the result of confounding the English idiom with the Latin comparative followed by the ablative quo. "In Latin quo means than who, and than is expressed by the ablative. Classical scholars writing in English have supplied than, and yet, with the Latin syntax in their minds, have retained the oblique (objective) case."* EXERCISE 47. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule XI. 1. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 2. He is more bold but not so wise as his companion. 3. Will it be urged that the four Gospels are as old or even older than tradition? 4. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, as knowledge. * Rushton, Rules and Cautions, p. 104. Dr. Priestley seems to have had a notion that than is in such cases a preposition, and Mr. Abbott (English Grammar, p. 210) says it was perhaps regarded as a quasi-preposition. But this is no help in the explanation of the construction, which, indeed, is idiomatic. I 6. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for speaking, compos ing, or parsing correctly. 7. No one gave his opinion so modestly as he. 8. I do not deny but he has merit. 9. We expected something more besides this. 10. Was the singing any different to-night than usual? VIII. ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE-INDEPENDENT-INTERJECTION. Rule XII.—1. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word is put in the nominative absolute. 2. The nominative independent and the interjection have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. I. Absolute Construction.-In the absolute construction the noun or pronoun is always joined with a participle, the two forming a phrase: thus 1. Spring returning, the swallows reappear. 2. They being unprepared, we began the attack. This construction is called absolute, because the noun or pronoun is loosed or absolved from grammatical dependence on any other words in the sentence. The absolute construction in Anglo-Saxon was the dative,* and we find this construction in authors as late as Milton: thus And him destroyed For whom all this was made, all this will soon Follow.-Paradise Lost. "Him" is here not an objective, but a real dative. The loss of caseinflections has led to the confounding of the cases, and modern usage requires the nominative case in this construction. * In Latin the ablative, in Greek the genitive. EXERCISE 48. In the following sentences apply Rule XII. 1. The president having given his assent, the bill became a law. 2. Those barbarous ages past, succeeded next the birthday of invention. 3. Then shall I be no more; And Adam, wedded to another Eve, Shall live with her enjoying; I [being] extinct. 4. Success being now hopeless, preparations were made for retreat. Thou looking on, 5. Shamed to be overcome or overreached Would utmost vigor raise. II. Independent Construction.-Under the independent construction occur the following cases: 1. When, by direct address, a noun is put in the second person, and set off from the verb by a comma: as Horatius, saith the consul, As thou sayest, so let it be. 2. When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for emphasis: asThe boy, oh! where was he? 3. When, by exclamation (one of the figures of rhetoric), a word is employed in the manner of an interjection: as— Oh! deep enchanting prelude to repose! EXERCISE 49. In the following sentences apply Rule XII. 1. Awake, my St. John, leave all meaner things.-Pope. 2. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God.— Bible. 3. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse !-Shakspeare. 4. Plato, thou reasonest well.-Addison. 5. O thou that with surpassing glory crowned, Look'st from thy sole dominion, like the God Of this new world. O sun! to tell thee how I hate thy beams.-Milton. 6. The gallant king, he skirted still The margin of that mighty hill.--Scott. The Interjection.-The interjection is to be parsed as "having no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence." The term interjection (inter, between, and jacere, to cast or throw) signifies something that is thrown in among things of which it does not naturally form a constituent part; that is to say, among the words of a sentence. Speech is the expression of thought, but an interjection is the expression of feeling: so that it is not, strictly speaking, a part of speech. Indeed, in place of being a part of a sentence, it is itself an entire though unanalyzed utterance of emotion, and expresses in its own way what it would require a whole sentence to state-provided this statement were possible. Below will be found a few illustrations of the use of interjections. † 1. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 2. Alas! both for the deed and for the cause. 3. Alack! when once we have our grace forgot, nothing goes right. 5. Fy! my lord, fy! a soldier, and afraid! 6. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 7. "Ho! shifts she thus ?" King Henry cried. 8. Hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 9. O Nature, how in every charm supreme! 10. But she is in her grave-and oh The difference to me!‡ "Almost all animals have some peculiar sound to explain any sudden feeling they experience. The interjection is such a sound, as employed by man."-Morell's Grammar. The following etymologies of a few common interjections may be of interest: Alas! ah lesso=0 [me] miserable. Adieu, à Dieu [I commend you] to God. O dear, O Dieu O God. Amen, a Hebrew adverb signifying verily, truly', yea. The last two examples illustrate a distinction which should be observed in writing the interjection O or Oh. O is merely the sign of the "nominative independent" (vocative), whereas oh conveys a particular sentiment, as of appeal, grief, etc. IX. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. I. The Infinitive. Rule I. The infinitive depends upon a noun, a verb, or an adjective, and takes the same complements and modifiers as the verb. I. An infinitive may always be disposed of by one of the XII. Rules of Syntax, or by one of the Special Rules. But as it is often difficult to determine the construction of this verbal, the rule above given may be used instead of that which more directly applies. II. To, of the infinitive, is generally omitted after the verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, in the active voice: as, "Bid him go," "I hear thee speak of the better land;" "I dare do all that may become a man." III. The infinitive is sometimes absolute: as, To tell you the truth, I do not like him;" "Marley was dead, to begin with.” II. The Gerund. Rule II.-The gerund has the construction of the noun with the complements and modifications of the verb. I. The noun construction of the gerund is exemplified in its use as subject or object of a verb, in its dependence on a preposition, and in its taking a possessive: as— 1. Reading is profitable. 2. Bees are skilful in building. 3. His [or John's] making money is no proof of merit. II. The verb construction of the gerund is exemplified in the fact 1. Bees are skilful in building their hives. |