The New International Year Book

and W. S. Rossiter; "Economic Theorizing and Scientific Progress," by J. H. Hollander. Papers or speeches were also given by G. Hunt, B. F. Shambaugh, Waldo G. Leland, Leo F. Stock, Louis A. Simon, W. M. Stephens, B. H. Meyer, W. C. Mitchell, Willard Straight, and G. E. Roberts. The officers of the association for 1915: Walter F. Wilcox, of Cornell University, president, and Allyn A. Young, of Cornell University, secretary and treasurer.

ECONOMICS, HOME. See FOOD AND NUTRI

AREA AND POPULATION. The eastern limits of the republic are not definitely established, but, pending a settlement of the boundary disputes with Colombia and Peru, the area is stated at 299,600 square kilometers (115,676 square miles); or, including the Galápagos (about 730 miles off the coast), 307,243 square kilometers (118,627 square miles). The republic is divided into 17 provinces. The population in 1903 was placed at 1,272,000; an estimate of 1910 is 1,500,000. The majority of the people are Indians, and there are perhaps 400,000 mestizos; the proportion of pure white inhabitants is very small. Much uncertainty exists in respect of urban population; Guayaquil is supposed to have upwards of 80,000 inhabitants; Quito, about 70,000; Cuenca, over 40,000; Riobamba, about 18,000; Puertoviejo, Ambato, Loja, and Ibarra,

each about 10,000.

EDUCATION. Illiteracy is prevalent, though primary instruction is free and nominally compulsory. A report of the minister of public instruction, published in 1915, gave the number of primary schools as 1231, with an enrollment of 95,019. State schools numbered 1054, with 72,655 pupils; municipal schools, 92, with 12,009 pupils; and private schools, 85, with 10,355 pupils. For secondary instruction there are 12 institutes supported by the government, besides commercial and technical schools at Quito and Guayaquil. For higher and professional education there are universities at Quito, Guayaquil, and Cuenca. There is also a law college at Loja. The state religion is Roman Catholicism.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. The most important crop is cacao, for which Ecuador supplies a large part of the world's demand, though the proportion is smaller than formerly; the average Ecuadorean output has not declined, but that of other countries, notably Brazil, has in recent years increased. In 1913, 85,908,495 pounds of cacao were delivered at the port of Guayaquil; the quantity sent to other ports for shipment is comparatively small. Other products of account are coffee, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, ivory nuts, and rubber. The rubber industry has suffered from the thriftless exploitation of the trees. A large part of the ivory nuts was taken by Germany, and the export of that product declined upon the outbreak of the great German war. Ecuador has valuable mineral resources, but they have not been largely exploited. Manufactures have little commercial importance, except Panama hats, which are produced in large numbers.

The reported value of imports and exports, respectively, in 1911, was $11,489,104 and $12,692,237; in 1912, $10,354,564 and $13,689,696;

COMMUNICATIONS. The length of railway in operation in 1912 was about 370 miles; of this, 297 miles are comprised in the line from Durán (opposite Guayaquil) to Quito. This line was opened in June, 1908, and since has been worked at a heavy loss, in fact not earning interest upon its bonds, so that the track cannot be maintained in a proper state of repair, and breakdowns and serious accidents are of frequent occurrence. Previous to the outbreak of the European war a German firm secured a contract from the government to build a line from Huigra to Cuenca, and this would have had considerable effect on the prosperity of the country. A railway (19 miles) extends from Puerto Bolívar to construction: a line from Manta, on the coast, to Machala, Pasaje, and Guabo. There are under Quito; a line from Ambato to Curraray; and a Santa Ana; a line from Bahía de Caraquez to coastal line from Guayaquil to Salinas. At the end of 1912, there were 3318 miles of telegraph line, with 188 offices. There are six radiotelegraph stations. Post offices, 151.

FINANCE. Gold is the standard of value. The sucre is the monetary unit; it has a par value of 48.665 cents, being one-tenth of the Ecuadorean condor or of the British sovereign. in thousands of sucres (the figures for 1915 are Revenue and expenditure are reported as follows, estimated):

The chief items of revenue are import duties (8,155,620 sucres in 1912) and export duties (4,598,408). The larger disbursements in 1912 were: for the public debt, 6,927,348 sucres; war and marine, 3,411,810; public instruction, 1,844,698; interior and police, 1,561,325. Public debt, Jan. 1, 1914: foreign, 28,027,400 sucres; internal, 14,114,420; total, 42,141,820.

GOVERNMENT. The executive authority is vested in a President elected by direct vote for four years. He is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers. The Congress consists of two houses, the Senate (32 member, elected for four years) and the Chamber of Deputies (48 members, elected for two years). For the term beginning Aug. 31, 1911, Emilio Estrada was inaugurated President in succession to Gen. Eloy Alfaro. The death of Estrada, Dec. 21, 1911, was followed by a revolutionary outbreak headed apparently by friends of Alfaro (who was killed). On March 31, 1912, the commander of the gov ernment forces, Gen. Leonidas Plaza, was elected

President, and on the 31st of August following was inaugurated for a four-year term. Plaza was President in 1901-05.

HISTORY. End of the Revolution. The revolution in Ecuador which began in December, 1913, under the leadership of Col. Carlos Concha was thought to have reached an end late in February, when Colonel Concha was captured near Esmeraldas. A report to the State Department in Washington stated that the government "considers this of great importance and that it means the collapse of the revolutionary movement." (See YEAR BOOK, 1914.)

Political and Economic Conditions. Ecuador was represented at the Pan-American Financial Conference, in Washington, in May, by E. Gallardo and V. Gonzales. The principal duty of these delegates was to acquaint the members of the Conference with facts concerning the Guaya quil and Quito Railroad, an American-owned line, which had failed to make several payments of interest on bonds. These bonds were owned mainly by European investors who, as security, held a lien on the entire customs receipts of the country. Ecuador claimed that it was experiencing difficulty with the line and could not make it pay the interest. The committee appointed by the conference to consider the matter accepted the report made by the Ecuadorean delegates. The war in Europe brought about a deficit in the revenues of Ecuador estimated at $2,000,000. In order to make up this deficit the government endeavored to establish a market in the Western Hemisphere for Ecuadorean products. In July an effort was made to encourage trade between Chile and Ecuador by an exhibit of Chilean goods at Quito. An executive decree convened Congress on August 10th. The session was chiefly concerned with measures to improve the economic condition of the country. EDISON BATTERY. See ELECTRIC BAT

TERIES.

EDUCATION. See section so entitled under various foreign countries and under States of the United States.

EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. STATISTICS. Attendance in Elementary and Secondary Schools. The latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education gives the statistics for the year 1913. It shows that there were in the elementary schools, including kindergarten, primary, and grammar grades, a total of 19,064,787 pupils. Of this number, 17,474,269 were in public, and 1,590,518 in private, schools. There were 1,134,771 secondary students in public institutions, and 148,238 in private schools. There were also 83,813 secondary students in the preparatory departments of higher institutions. În miscellaneous schools of elementary and secondary rank there were 839,634 students. A total of 21,271,243 students received formal instruction in elementary or secondary subjects during 1913. Compared with the total population of the country, in each thousand persons 196 were in the elementary school and 14 were in the high school. The public provided instruction for 180 of the 196 elementary pupils and for 12 of the 14 high school students.

The length of school term varied from 91 days to 194 days. The average for all of the States was 158 days. The average number of days' attendance in public schools for each child between the ages of 5 and 17 years inclusive varied from 41 days in South Carolina to 112

days in California. The average for the whole country was 84 days. All but three States, Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, now have compulsory school attendance laws. In Idaho the compulsory attendance age is from 8 to 17 years inclusive. In a few States the limits are from 7 to 15 years, in others from 8 to 15. The minimum period of compulsory attendance each year varies from 24 weeks to the full school year. Of each thousand pupils in the elementary school 235 were in the first grade, 150 in the second, 139 in the third, 133 in the fourth, 112 in the fifth, 92 in the sixth, 76 in the seventh, and 63 in the eighth. The number registered in the first grade does not represent the number who are beginning school. It is usually estimated that one-half of the first grade enrollment is composed of those who repeat the grade or are retarded. Taking this assumption as the basis, it would seem that less than one child in four who enters the first grade reaches the high school and that only about 109 out of every thousand who enter first grade graduate from the high school. Teachers in Elementary Schools and High Schools. The public elementary schools employed 89,801 men and 421,944 women as teachers. The public high schools employed 23,412 men and 30,326 women. In addition it is estimated that 41,831 teachers were employed in private elementary schools and 13,358 in private high schools. In three years-1910 to 1913the number of public elementary school teachers was increased 6 per cent. The increase in number of children enrolled was 5 per cent. During the same time the number of high school students increased 21 per cent but the number of high school teachers increased 29 per cent.

Costs of State Common Schools. The total expenditure for the common schools in 1913 was $521,546,375, or $5.37 per capita of total population. Of each $100 secured for school purposes $4 came from income of permanent funds or rents, $15 came from State taxes, $74 from local taxes, and $7 from other sources. It cost an average of $38.31 for each pupil in average attendance. Of this amount $6.14 was used for sites and buildings, $22.36 for salaries, and $9.81 for all other purposes. The per capita cost for high school students during the year ending June, 1914, was $57.02.

In a recent report of a survey of the San Antonio school system Prof. J. F. Bobbitt presents as an "index of community valuations" some tables which give the costs of teaching various high school subjects. The following table is compiled from data which he presents:

ECONOMICS, HOME. See FOOD AND NUTRI

TION.

ECONOMICS, SOCIAL. See SOCIAL ECONOM

ICS.

ECUADOR. A South American republic between Colombia and Peru. Capital, Quito.

The reported value of imports and exports, respectively, in 1911, was $11,489,104 and $12,692,237; in 1912, $10,354,564 and $13,689,696;

COMMUNICATIONS. The length of railway in operation in 1912 was about 370 miles; of this, 297 miles are comprised in the line from Durán (opposite Guayaquil) to Quito. This line was opened in June, 1908, and since has been worked at a heavy loss, in fact not earning interest upon its bonds, so that the track cannot be maindowns and serious accidents are of frequent octained in a proper state of repair, and breakcurrence. Previous to the outbreak of the European war a German firm secured a contract from the government to build a line from Huigra to Cuenca, and this would have had considerable effect on the prosperity of the country. A railway (19 miles) extends from Puerto Bolívar to construction: a line from Manta, on the coast, to Machala, Pasaje, and Guabo. There are under Quito; a line from Ambato to Curraray; and a Santa Ana; a line from Bahía de Caraquez to coastal line from Guayaquil to Salinas. At the end of 1912, there were 3318 miles of telegraph line, with 188 offices. There are six radiotelegraph stations. Post offices, 151.

FINANCE Gold is the standard of value. The sucre is the monetary unit; it has a par value of 48.665 cents, being one-tenth of the Ecuadorean condor or of the British sovereign. in thousands of sucres (the figures for 1915 are Revenue and expenditure are reported as follows, estimated):

1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 Revenue 13,264 19,973 20,140 20,996 20,880 Expenditure ..15,836 19,950 21,503 20,760 20,880

President, and on the 31st of August following was inaugurated for a four-year term. Plaza was President in 1901-05.

TERIES.

EDUCATION. See section so entitled under various foreign countries and under States of the United States.

EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. STATISTICS. Attendance in Elementary and Secondary Schools. The latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education gives the statistics for the year 1913. It shows that there were in the elementary schools, including kindergarten, primary, and grammar grades, a total of 19,064,787 pupils. Of this number, 17,474,269 were in public, and 1,590,518 in private, schools. There were 1,134,771 secondary students in public institutions, and 148,238 in private schools. There were also 83,813 secondary students in the preparatory departments of higher institutions. In miscellaneous schools of elementary and secondary rank there were 839,634 students. A total of 21,271,243 students received formal instruction in elementary or secondary subjects during 1913. Compared with the total population of the country, in each thousand persons 196 were in the elementary school and 14 were in the high school. The public provided instruction for 180 of the 196 elementary pupils and for 12 of the 14 high school students.

Teachers in Elementary Schools and High Schools. The public elementary schools employed 89,801 men and 421,944 women as teachers. The public high schools employed 23,412 men and 30,326 women. In addition it is estimated that 41,831 teachers were employed in private elementary schools and 13,358 in private high schools. In three years-1910 to 1913the number of public elementary school teachers was increased 6 per cent. The increase in number of children enrolled was 5 per cent. During the same time the number of high school students increased 21 per cent but the number of high school teachers increased 29 per cent.

The table should be read as follows: San Antonio devotes 20.4 per cent of all the expense of instruction to English composition and literature. For each student it costs 6.7 cents for each hour of instruction in English. Professor Bobbitt implies that because the community is willing to pay 11.4 cents per student per hour for instruction in modern languages and only 6.8 cents for the instruction in sciences they value modern languages more highly than sci

ences.

BUREAUS OF RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY. the past four years nine cities have established departments or bureaus of research and efficiency in connection with their public schools. These cities and the dates of the establishment of the bureaus are as follows: Rochester, N. Y., 1911; Baltimore, Md., 1912; New Orleans, La., 1912; New York City, 1913; Boston, Mass., 1914; Kansas City, Mo., 1914; Detroit, Mich., 1914; Oakland, Cal., 1914; Schenectady, N. Y., 1914. In each case the aim is to have a constant investigation of the school system. The following quotation from the annual report of the Superintendent of Schools of Kansas City gives the aims and functions of the bureau established in that city: "The purpose of this bureau is to assist in discovering better methods of administering and supervising our schools, and better methods of teaching the various subjects of the curriculum. It is hoped that such plans and methods may be discovered as will secure the best results from the given factors.

"The plan throughout will be coöperative. It shall be the function of this bureau to bring together the results of efforts at improvements and so tabulate and arrange the data that those interested may know the facts that have been revealed by any investigations that are undertaken and be able to judge in a better way the value of the conclusions reached. A further aim will be to so democratize the school system and so plan the work that the humblest teacher in any grade may contribute the results of her work to the advancement of the system.

"While ill-advised and unorganized experimentation will not be undertaken, much liberty will be allowed in working out problems along safe and conservative lines.

While the above statement describes in a general way the work of this bureau, we might enumerate specific functions as follows:

First: To measure and tabulate the results that are now being secured in our schools. During the first year we hope to do some work in measuring the results in writing and arithmetic and possibly also in spelling and language.

Second: To study the results of the work of similar bureaus in other cities and bring to Kansas City the best conclusions of those bu

reaus.

Third: To coöperate in the investigation of any problem that may confront the board of education, the superintendents, the supervisors, the principals, the teachers, or the people.

Fourth: To tabulate and analyze all statistical reports.

Fifth: To study methods of reducing waste in the school system.

Sixth: To study with the principals and the teachers plans for reducing elimination of pupils, non-promotion of pupils, and failures of pupils.

Seventh: To coöperate with all the depart

ments of the school system in efforts to increase efficiency.

EDUCATIONAL INVESTIGATIONS AND SURVEYS. The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation assisted by the Russell Sage Foundation conducted a very thorough survey of the schools of Cleveland, Ohio. The report of the survey is contained in 25 small volumes which may be obtained either from Cleveland Foundation or from the Russell Sage Foundation, New York. Professor John F. Bobbitt, of the University of Chicago, investigated the schools of San Antonio, Texas. During December, 1915, the city of Boston employed a group of educational experts to investigate the management of the city schools. The report of this investigation is not yet printed. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching is conducting an haustive survey of the teachers' training institutions of Missouri. During the month of May the public school system of Salt Lake City, Utah, was surveyed by a staff under the direction of Ellwood P. Cubberley, Leland Stanford University.

There are evidences that interest in investigations such as have been conducted is decreasing. The recent investigations have failed to develop any new plans of procedure or to suggest specific remedies for defects other than those found in certain administrative matters. The outcome of many of the investigations has been the creation of a distrust on the part of the public for their school officials and teachers. This may be wholesome in the end but the immediate results have in many cases been unfortunate.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEYS. Several cities, notably Richmond, New Orleans, and Minneapolis, have begun or completed very comprehensive investigations of their industries as related to industrial education. After considering such questions as conditions of employment, wages, hours of labor, entrance age, etc., the findings in the Richmond investigation present the education requirements for operatives in the various trades. It shows what the worker needs to properly equip him for the trade, what training the industry gives, common deficiencies of workmen, and ends with suggestions as to what the school ought to give. The industrial survey of Minneapolis seeks to find, first, to what extent the worker can "get on" in his job; second, to what extent the city's industries may give special training which they do not now provide; third, to what extent can the schools be a factor. The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education is directing the survey. Dr. Charles A. Prosser, Director of the William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute of the city of Minneapolis, is director. The Minneapolis School Board, the Dunwoody Industrial Institute, the Minneapolis Art Institute, and the Civic and Commerce Association are coöperating.

MONTESSORI SCHOOLS. Dr. Montessori began her experiments with normal children in Rome in the Case dei Bambini (children's houses) in one of the tenement sections. She had previously experimented with defective children and found that by using methods that developed the senses and by following the child's development she was able to accomplish almost as much with these children as was ordinarily accomplished by the regular schools with normal children. In 1909 she published the outcome of her observations and experiments in a book entitled The

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