Method of Scientific Pedagogy Applied to Infant Education. Her training in medicine and psychiatry enabled her to apply the method of experimental science to the study of education. The following quotation presents in brief form her method: "Give the best conditions of life, and then, as is done with other living organisms, give freedom for development, disturbing as little as possible, observing, certainly helping, by every means, in this development." The distinctive features of the method are an insistence upon sense education and muscular training. She emphasizes freedom for the children and demands that the teacher shall observe them and assist them but not prescribe what shall be done. By the use of various materials which can be used in only one way the child is led to correct himself. This, according to Madame Montessori, provokes "auto-education" and because the material does the teaching she calls it "the didactic material." It is claimed that children learn the ordinary school subjects rapidly and easily after the preliminary training afforded by this method.

The Montessori movement in America began in 1911. From that time on many American teachers and others interested in education visited the Montessori schools in Italy and Switzerland. Miss Anna E. George, who had previously studied and observed in the Montessori schools, translated Madame Montessori's book, and opened a Montessori class in Tarrytown, N. Y., in October, 1911. In 1912 the Montessori American Committee was formed. This committee helped to arrange the first International Teachers' Training course at Rome. Of the 100 students in attendance nearly 70 were Americans. In May, 1913, the National Montessori Educational Association was formed with headquarters in Washington. The purpose is "to promote and develop in America the educational movement based on the principles and theories of Dr. Montessori, and to assist in the establishment and maintenance of schools for children and schools of observation and practice conducted according to said principles." The association now has a membership of more than 700.

Dr. Montessori visited the United States in 1913 and again in 1915. During her last visit she conducted a teachers' training institute in connection with a model class at the Panama Exposition. No available data concerning the number of Montessori schools in America are available. It is certain that a considerable number of teachers have been influenced by her method and in their own work, largely in private schools, have modified their practice in accord

ance.

ORGANIC EDUCATION. Mrs. John F. Johnson is developing a method of school instruction and organization at Fairhope, Ala., that is now commanding the attention of the school authorities. Schools similar to hers have been established in various parts of the United States. Each summer she conducts a teachers' training course in connection with a model school at Greenwich, Conn. "She calls her methods of education 'organic' because they follow the natural growth of the pupil. The school aims to provide for the child the occupations and activities necessary at each stage of development for his unfolding at that stage. Therefore, she insists that general development, instead of the amount of informa

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tion acquired, shall control the classification of the pupils. Division into groups is made where it is found that the children naturally divide themselves. These groups are called 'Life Classes' instead of grades. The first life class ends between the 8th and 9th years; the second between the 11th and 12th, and since an even more marked change of interests and tastes occurs at the period of adolescence, there are distinct high-school classes. The work within the group is then arranged to give the pupils the experiences which are needed at that age for the development of their bodies, minds, and spirits."

In place of the typical primary curriculum she has the following activities: Physical exercise, nature study, music, hand work, field geography, story telling, sense culture, fundamental conceptions of number, dramatizations, and games. As much as possible of this work is conducted out of doors. In the ordinary school the gymnasium work comes at a time when the child is fatigued with his study. In Mrs. Johnson's school the gymnasium work, which is informal, may come the first thing in the morning. In place of being forced to learn the "three R's," the child is led into reading, writing, and arithmetic by his own desire to know. Mrs. Johnson is not disturbed if a child does not learn to read until he is eight or nine years old.

Mrs. Johnson has not formulated her work into any system, so it is impossible to state the principles by which she works. The best description of her work is found in Schools of Tomorrow, by John Dewey.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. There was no change during 1915 in the number of States having systems for organizing and supervising vocational schools and for assisting local communities in the maintenance of such schools through grants of State aid. The States having such systems are: Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Indiana. In each of these States administration is effected through the office of a special deputy or expert assistant attached to the staff of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction or Commissioner of Education.

Federal Aid for Vocational Training. The Smith-Lever Act, approved by the President on May 8, 1914, provides for "coöperative agricultural extension work which shall consist of the giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or resident" in the agricultural colleges. The appropriations provided by this act go to the State agricultural colleges which are required to make plans for the work subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture. During the current fiscal year each State had $10,000 from this fund. The general plan for conducting the extension work consisted in, first, locating extension agents in several counties of the State to carry on demonstrations, advise the agricultural people and stimulate them to better methods; second, the organization of boys' and girls' clubs, largely in connec tion with the rural schools, to conduct some simple agricultural or home economics project; third, the organization of a staff of specialists in agriculture and home economics as a part of the faculty of the agricultural college. These specialists go about the State and assist the extension agents. Agents are now located in more

than 1000 counties out of the 3000 in the United States.

The Smith-Lever Bill provides "$10,000 annually to each State for its Agricultural College beginning July 1, 1914. For the year beginning July 1, 1915, it provided $600,000 additional to be allotted to the various States in the proportion which the rural population of each State bears to the total rural population of the United States; and for each succeeding year for seven years an additional amount of $500,000 allotted on the same basis. By July 1, 1923, this will amount to an annual appropriation of $4,100,000 in addition to the $10,000 to each State. None of this amount will be paid to any State (excepting the $10,000 annually) unless the State makes an equal appropriation. Both the fund received from the Federal government and the equal fund from the State government to balance it must be expended on extension schemes approved by the United States Department of Agriculture."

The Smith-Hughes Bill for national aid to vocational education was before the Sixty-third Congress and has been reintroduced in the Sixty-fourth Congress. This bill would "provide Federal aid to coöperate with the various States in the maintenance and support of vocational schools of agriculture, home economics, and the trades and industries for persons 14 years of age and over, and in the maintenance and support of schools for training teachers for the vocational subjects in these vocational schools. This would provide vocational education in regular day schools of high school grade and part-time day schools for youths not employed, and in continuation courses in evening schools for youths and adults regularly employed." The following table presents a summary of the proposed grants to be given to the States by the Smith-Hughes Bill:

his sole control. This theatre was given over to the lighter comedies and burlesques. With the production of The Gaiety Girl Mr. Edwardes first introduced that form of entertainment now known as musical comedy. This was followed by a long series of comedies of a like kind, including The Shop Girl, The Artist's Model, San Toy, The Country Girl, and The Geisha. These musical plays were produced in conjunction with Charles Frohman, and other partners, and were successful in the United States and England. Mr. Edwardes was one of the most widely known managers in England at the time of his death.

EGGS. See AGRICULTURE, sections The War and Agriculture and Eggs.

EGYPT. A khedivate of northeastern Africa, virtually under the control of Great Britain and nominally under Turkish suzerainty until 1914, when it became a British protectorate. Cairo is the capital.

AREA AND POPULATION. The area, exclusive of the Sudan, is given as 363,181 square miles, of which only 12,013 square miles are settled and under cultivation. The population in 1907 numbered 11,189,978, not including nomadic Bedouins, estimated to number over 97,000. By nationalities the population was made up as follows: 10,903,677 (10,366,046 sedentary, 537,631 nomadic) Egyptians, and 286,381 foreigners, of whom 69,725 Turks, 62,973 Greeks, 34,926 Italians, 20,853 British including Maltese, 14,591 French including Tunisians, 7704 Austrians and Hungarians, 2410 Russians, etc. Mohammedans numbered 10,366,826; Copts, 706,322; Jews, 38,635. In 1907 Cairo had 654,476 inhabitants; Alexandria, 332,246; Tanta, 54,437; Port Said, 49,884; Mehala el Kobra, 47,955; Mansura, 40,279; Assiut, 39,442; Damanhur, 38,752; Fayum, 37,320; Zagazig, 34,999; Damietta, 29,354; Minieh, 27,221; Sherbin, 25,473;

The maximum in each case above is continued annually after 1923-24. EDUCATION, VOCATIONAL. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, section Vocational Education.

EDWARDES, GEORGE. English theatrical manager, died Aug. 4, 1915. He was born in 1852. In his early years he intended to enter the army, but his associations with the theatre provided the stronger attraction, and he went into the theatrical business. For 10 years, beginning with 1875, he worked under the direction of D'Oyley Carte, then manager of the Savoy Theatre. He then bought out a half interest in the Gaiety Theatre, which soon passed under

Akhmim, 23,795; Beni-Suef, 23,357; Menuf, 22,316; Shebin el Kom, 21,576; Mellawi, 20,249; Qena, 20,069.

EDUCATION. In 1910 an important and very interesting experiment was begun, viz., the handing over of local education to the recently constituted provincial councils. This new departure introduced a much-needed elasticity and diversity into the system. The provincial councils became entirely responsible for elementary vernacular education in their districts, and all schools maintained by them are inspected by the ministry of education. The ministry still retains, under its direct control, certain elementary schools belonging to trusts controlled by

the ministry of Waqfs (pious foundations); these schools, or maktabs, numbered 142 at the end of 1913, with an attendance of 14,027. Higher primary schools, 34, with 7610 pupils; provincial council maktabs, 911, with 57,175; private maktabs (grant-in-aid), 3394, with 174,282; provincial council higher primary schools, 78, with 10,493. Total number of establishments under direct management of the ministry of education, 198, with 27,864 pupils; total number of establishments under inspection by the ministry, 4493, with 253,295 pupils. Of the latter total, 227,434 were boys, and 25,861 were girls. A free primary school has been established in Cairo.

AGRICULTURE. The area planted to cotton in 1910 was stated at 1,642,610 feddans, and in 1911 at 1,711,228-an increase of 68,618 feddans. Production, in 1911, of cleaned cotton, 3,318,529 metric quintals. In the table below are shown areas under main crops in feddans (1 feddan = 1.038 acres) in 1913, as distributed in Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and the Suez governorate; with the total area for Egypt, and the total yield (cotton and sugar in kantars, other crops in ardebs of 5.44 bushels) :

* British possessions in the Mediterranean. + British possessions in the Far East. Including Algeria.

Of the 1,723,094 feddans reported as planted to cotton in 1913, 486,600 feddans were attacked by the cotton worm, as compared with 980,300 in 1912. Area reported as planted to cotton in 1914, 737,354 hectares; yield, 3,144,960 metric quintals. Lower Egypt suffered from pink bollworm attacks, but Upper Egypt yielded a good

crop.

The area under sugar cane in 1915 was 21,921 hectares, or 108.2 per cent of the area in 1914, which amounted to 20,252 hectares and gave a production of 9,248,429 metric quintals of cane. The amount of sugar cane treated in 1913 was 741,000 tons, as compared with 537,000 in 1912. Amount of sugar cane treated in 1909-10, 515,839 tons (sugar yield, 553,346 metric quintals); 472,344 in 1910-11 (493,942).

Area planted to wheat, 1913-14, 526,453 hectares (preliminary figures for 1914-15, 640,118 hectares), yielding 8,935,297 metric quintals (10,654,389); barley, 161,035 (187,206) hectares, 2,412,234 (2,993,027) quintals; corn, 713,550 (771,904) hectares, 16,954,119 quintals; rice, 14,967 (133,925) hectares, 598,991 quintals.

Much hardship has resulted from the dearth of cattle for plowing in the Delta, disease having carried off a quarter of a million of these animals in seven years. Increase of cotton pests, due to improper drainage and the wholesale destruction of birds, has wrought havoc. Legislation has been enacted for the protection of bird life, and a commission appointed to devise means for the suppression or better control of the cotton worm and bollworm. The government has taken measures for the distribution of improved cotton seed.

COMMERCE. In the following table are given imports and exports of merchandise in thousands of pounds Egyptian:

The total export of cotton decreased from £E27,529,300 in 1912 to £E25,513,100 in 1913, and from £E24,241,000 in 1910 to £E22,988,000 in 1911, the United Kingdom taking over £E1,000,000 less than in the previous year. In 1913 the United Kingdom took £E10,996,700, as against £E12,572,200 in 1912; the United States, £E2,442,500, as against £E4,072,200 in 1912. Total export of cotton seed was £E3,294,800, of which the United Kingdom took £E1,698,700, and Germany, £E1,480,704. The cigarette export was £E395,000. Coal arrived to the amount of 1,686,700 tons, valued at £E2,010,000, of which the United Kingdom contributed 1,605,000 tons, valued at £E1,909,700.

The withdrawals of leaf tobacco decreased from 8,206,000 kilograms in 1912 to 8,177,000 in 1913. Russian tobacco advanced from 1,027,000 kilograms in 1911 to 1,511,000 in 1912, and 1,853,000 in 1913. Tobacco in bond decreased from 186,000 bales Dec. 31, 1912, to 167,000 bales Dec. 31, 1913, from the fact that, owing to the disturbed political conditions in eastern Europe, merchants transferred their stocks to Alexandria in 1912.

Steamers entered at Alexandria in the 1913 trade, 1932, of 3,718,660 net registered tons; cleared, 1927 steamers, of 3,698,396. There passed through the Suez Canal in 1913, 4979 vessels, of 19,758,040 net tons.

COMMUNICATIONS. There were 1512 miles of state railway in operation Jan. 1, 1913. In addition there were 795 miles of light railwaysthe Egyptian Delta Light Railways, the Chemins de Fer de la Basse-Egypte, and the Fayum Light Railway. There is an increase of 20 miles, as compared with 1912, due to the completion of a new line from Salhib to Baltim, constructed by the Delta Light Railway Co. Capital value of railways, 1913, £E27,291,943; interest on cap

ital, 5.97 per cent. Capital expenditure on State railways in 1913 amounted to £E446,000. For 1914, expenditure on capital works, £E443,000 were granted.

FINANCE. The alteration of the date of the financial year involved the preparation of an intercalary budget for the first quarter of 1914, which estimated for a surplus of £E155,000. All unused balances lapsed on March 13, 1914, with the inception of the new system. The budget for 1914-15 was estimated to balance at £E18,162,000. Revenue and expenditure for three years are shown in the table below:

GOVERNMENT. The reigning Khedive at the date of the establishment of the British protectorate was Abbas (II) Hilmi. By associating himself with the Turkish military operations against Egypt he incurred the resentment of the British government and was superseded by his father's brother, Hussein Kemal Pasha, with the revived title Sultan of Egypt. The Sultan is a man over 60 years of age, experienced in administrative functions, and educated in the Paris of the Second Empire. Sir Arthur Henry McMahon was appointed high commissioner for Egypt.

HISTORY. The first Sultan of Egypt, Hussein Kemal, appointed in December, 1914 (see YEAR BOOK, 1914, EGYPT), chose the following min isters to form his first cabinet: Premier and minister of the interior, Hussein Rushdi Pasha; agriculture, Adli Yeghen Pasha; pious foundations, Ismail Sidki Pasha; public works, Ahmed Hilmi Pasha; finance, Yussuf Wahba Pasha; justice, Abdul Khalek Sarwat Pasha. Almost from the outset the newly created Sultan was confronted by foreign and domestic dangers. From without, Egypt was menaced by the exKhedive, Abbas Hilmi, who had been given the title "King of Syria and Arabia" by the Sultan of Turkey by way of consolation for the loss of Egypt, and was rumored to be engaged in mustering forces for an attack upon the usurping Hussein Kemal. More serious was the danger from the army which the Turks sent to attack the Suez Canal and invade Egypt. Thanks to the warships stationed in the canal and to the loyal British colonial troops encamped on the banks of the canal, all Turkish assaults were repulsed. (For details see article WAR OF THE NATIONS, The Suez Canal.) Within Egypt itself constant conspiracies were being formed against the Sultan's life. Sir Arthur McMahon, the new high commissioner, who arrived in Egypt Jan. 9, 1915, took prompt measures to insure domestic tranquillity; and care was taken to impress the populace with a sufficient display of British colonial troops; but in spite of all precautions, an attempt to assassinate the Sultan almost succeeded April 8. A few months later another attempt was made. A bomb was thrown at Hussein as he passed through the streets of Alexandria on his way to prayers, July 10. After this attack, the government

deemed it necessary to issue a proclamation ordering every person having knowledge of any plot to report it under pain of summary punishment by martial law; nevertheless in September a member of the cabinet was thrice stabbed by an employee of the ministry of finance. The regular November session of the Legislative Assembly and the elections which should have been held in January, 1916, were postponed by a decree of the government, October 27th. See also ARCHEOLOGY and WAR OF THE NATIONS.

EHRLICH, PAUL. German scientist, died Aug. 20, 1915. He was born in Strehlen, in the Province of Silesia, in 1854, and attended school in Breslau, and later studied medicine in that city and at Strassburg, Freiburg, and Leipzig. His first studies were of the cellular elements of the blood, and his experiments in this work fortified him for his practical triumphs over certain blood diseases. About the same time he standardized his diphtheria antitoxin, which was adopted by the German government and which is used almost everywhere to-day. After the publication of this discovery, he took over the direc tion of a government institution founded at Steglitz, but its activities grew to such an extent that in 1899 the Royal Institute for Experimental Therapeutics was established at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Dr. Ehrlich was made its director. Here he carried on many experiments in the treatment of cancer, and in 1912 produced his cancer specific, nigrosin, which he had used on mice with great success. His most important discovery was salvarsan, widely known at first as "606" specific, for the cure of blood diseases. His experiments led him to the discovery of this remedy in 1910. Several years before his death he began experiments on the sleeping sickness. In 1906 Mrs. Georg Speyer endowed an institute for chemical therapeutics for Dr. Ehrlich. This was known as the Georg Speyer House. About the same time John D. Rockefeller learned of the contributions made by Dr. Ehrlich to medical science, and authorized the board of the Rockefeller Institute to place $10,000 at his disposal. In 1904 he visited the United States, and delivered lectures in several large cities. He received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Chicago. In 1907 he delivered the Harben lectures in London, receiving the degree of Sc.D. from the University of Oxford. He was the greatest exponent of modern pathology. He with Dr. Metchnikoff was, in 1908, the recipient of the Nobel prize for research work in medicine. He was the author of many works on medical science.

ELECTION LAWS. See ELECTORAL REFORM. ELECTION OF SENATORS, DIRECT. See ELECTORAL REFORM.

ELECTORAL REFORM. The State Legislatures in session in 1915 enacted many important measures relating to changes in electoral laws of the States. In several States changes were made in the residence qualifications of the voters. In Vermont the voter who changed his residence within 15 days prior to the election might vote in the town to which he moved. The Connecticut Legislature authorized a voter to retain, for the purpose of voting, residence in the town from which he moved. Meanwhile he was regarded as a resident of the town to which he moved, for the purpose of voting there at the following election. A similar provision was passed by the California Legislature. In Colorado, Michigan, Montana,

Washington, Wisconsin, and Iowa, qualified voters, absent from their resident precincts, were permitted to vote elsewhere in the State. In Texas a constitutional amendment was proposed authorizing absentee voting for State officers or on referendum.

REGULATIONS OF ELECTIONS. Separate ballots for judicial candidates in cities of 200,000 or over were required in Illinois and Wyoming. In these States judges had to be nominated regardless of political affiliation on judicial ballots at the general primaries. The Legislature of Indiana passed measures providing for the election by public vote of party committees of all kinds. It further provided that candidates for all offices, except State offices, and for presi: dential electors, should be chosen by direct primaries, but preferential voting for candidates for President, Vice-President, United States Senator, and Governor was authorized. Provision was made in West Virginia for nomination by direct primaries for all candidates for office, except specified judicial officers, presidential candidates and electors, and officers in small cities. The Legislature of South Dakota repealed the Richards Primary Law enacted in 1913, and restored the law of 1909, with amendments. New direct primary laws were enacted in California and Alabama. In Oregon provision was made for the election of delegates to national conventions, nomination of presidential electors, and for expression of choice of candidates for President and Vice-President. In Minnesota and Wisconsin a second-choice provision of the primary laws was abolished. In Vermont at the primary a provision for referendum was enacted. If the law is approved by the people, it will take effect in 1916; if rejected it will take effect in 1927. In Kansas provision was made for a system of individual declaration of intention to become a candidate as an alternative for nomination by votes. At the time of making this declaration the intended candidate must pay an entry fee of 1 per cent on his salary for the first year. The expenditure of any party for a single campaign is limited to $15,000.

INITIATIVE, REFERENDUM, AND RECALL. The constitutional amendment authorizing the initiative and referendum was proposed in Minnesota and North Dakota. Frauds in connection with initiative, referendum, or recall petitions were penalized in California, and it was made a felony of 1 to 15 years' imprisonment to subscribe a fictitious name or the name of another person to such petitions. In Nevada provision was made for referendum on local and special legislation to the voters of the county affected. Improvement in the form of initiative bills is provided for in California, which requires the legislative council to coöperate in the passage of such measures on the request of 25 electors, and requires also the Attorney-General to prepare a title and summary for initiative improvements.

PROVISION FOR AMENDMENT OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS. A constitutional convention for the provision of an amendment in New York State was in session in New York (see NEW YORK). The question of calling conventions in Louisiana, New Hampshire, South Dakota, and Tennessee was submitted to the voters. If authorized the New Hampshire Convention will meet in 1918, and the Tennessee Convention in 1916. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. See ELEC

TRIC POWER, TRANSMISSION OF; ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; RAILWAYS; WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY; etc.

ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES. The European war continued to have its retarding effect on the development of electrical industries during the first part of 1915, but later on under improved business conditions there was a larger demand in most lines of activity, although not great enough noticeably to alter the financial results as compared with 1914. The accompanying table, compiled by a well-known authority in such matters, giving the gross earnings of the various electrical industries of the United States for 1915, shows a very slight increase-less than one-half of 1 per cent in the result of operations as compared with the preceding year:

The exports of electrical machinery, appliances, instruments, etc., from the United States for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915, amounted to $19,771,757, a decrease of $5,289,087, as compared with the corresponding period of 1914. The iron and steel industry adopted electric power on an increasing scale and for a great variety of purposes. In steel works the arc furnace was apparently the most favored type, and there was a continually wider use of electricity for welding in railroad and automobile shops, etc. The adoption of electric japanning ovens for use in the automobile industry was making rapid strides and it was estimated that appliances of this sort having a total capacity of 12,000 k. w. were in use in or near the cities of Detroit and Toledo alone, besides an equal amount in widely distributed service stations of the various automobile manufacturing companies.

A project for the construction of a dam near Queenston, at the lower end of the Niagara Gorge, for developing 2,000,000 horse power of electrical energy, was under consideration during the year. A plant at this location, and of such large capacity, would increase enormously the development of the electro-chemical industries in and near the city of Niagara Falls. The importance of the matter alike to the industrial world and to all those interested in the preservation of the scenic beauties of the State of New York, was destined to lead to a bitter controversy.

At the close of the year it was the prevailing opinion that the competition of the jitney automobile that had made such serious inroads on the earnings of electric street railways had about reached its limit, and that owing to the growing recognition of the cost of supplying jitney service on a scale satisfactory to the public, the effect on the earnings of the traction companies would be less severe.

ELECTRIC BATTERIES. There was little change in the design of storage batteries during the year. A modified type of cell was brought out by Thomas A. Edison, Inc., of larger size and