stronger construction than the standard nickeliron alkaline cell, and adapted for use in central stations and submarine boats. The positive elements consisted of layers of nickel hydrate and metallic nickel flakes packed in small perforated steel tubes. These were clamped into a grid called a subgrid, which was welded into a main grid frame of steel. The negative plates were oxide of iron and mercury packed in flat perforated pockets of nickel-plated steel. The chemical reactions are the same as those in the standard Edison cells in common use. There was a marked increase in the application of storage batteries to vehicle propulsion not only for pleasure cars but for commercial trucks and fire apparatus as well. The growing recognition by the managers of electric central stations of the value of the electric vehicle as a by-product customer led in large cities to a better system for supplying energy for such purposes, as well as improved arrangements in ga rages to facilitate the charging, handling, and replacing of batteries. An endurance test for a delivery wagon battery was made which established a new mileage record for such work, the vehicle traveling 98 miles with a single charge of its battery while operating under regular service conditions, over wet asphalt, carrying its regular load and making the average number of stops, of which there were 35. The amount of current consumed was about 165 ampere hours, or an average of 1.68 ampere hours per mile. A number of electric locomotives for operation by storage batteries were built during the year, ranging in size from the smallest practicable type, for use in mines and having a height of only 41 inches, to a 10-ton locomotive built for use in the United States Navy Yard at Portsmouth, Va. This was equipped with two 21horse-power motors, and its battery could develop enough energy to accomplish 800 ton-miles of travel on a level track. ELECTRIC GENERATORS AND MOTORS. flame arc and magnetite arc lamps to the gasfilled tungsten unit, but this was not by any means universal and the substitution of the latter type for arc lamps in several large cities continued on an increasing scale, the prevailing type of the former being of 300 watts' capacity, with a limited number of the 400 watt size. The manufacturers were producing lamps capable of a useful life of about 2000 hours, a notable improvement over the former product. The high and rapidly increasing cost of platinum during the year made it necessary for manufacturers to find a substitute for this metal to use for the leading-in wires of incandescent lamps. For this purpose an alloy of nickel and chromium was largely employed, and to a limited extent metallic tungsten and molybdenum were used. In England a novel type of tungsten arc lamp was being developed. The lamp was filled with nitrogen at a pressure of about two-thirds of one atmosphere, and the filament was of tungsten combined with the refractory oxides zirconia, thoria, and yttria. In operation the heating of the filament ionized the gas between it and another electrode, thus leading to the formation of an arc after a few moments. The lamp was so made that the arc occurred between small globules of tungsten, and while still in an experimental stage at the close of the year, gave promise of furnishing a highly efficient light. Its ordinary efficiency was 0.5 watt per candle power, and the color of the light a bright yellow. Higher efficiencies than this were obtained and the color of the light became a dazzling white, but the arc under those circumstances was not as stable as could be desired. A portable searchlight for fire department use was developed that was giving highly satisfactory results in service. The light was furnished by a 35 volt, 750 watt Mazda lamp of the focus type, for which current was furnished by a 35 volt Edison storage battery of 150 ampere hours' capacity. The focusing device attached to the lamp made it possible either to concentrate the light in a parallel beam of almost 1,000,000 can See DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. The retarded progress of most industries during the earlier part of the year restricted the demand for electric lamps of all kinds, and conservative estimates reported that the total sales of incandescent lamps manufactured in the United States amounted to less than 100,000,000, about the same number as in 1914. Tungsten lamps made up 70 per cent of the total number sold. In 1914 about 1,000,000 gas-filled tungsten incandescent lamps were put on the market, while in 1915 it was reported that more than 1,750,000 lamps of this type were sold in the United States. This lamp was available in a variety of sizes rated from 200 to 1000 watts and adapted to voltages of from 220 to 250. There was an improvement in the efficiency of the 15- and 20-ampere lamps used for series street lighting, and the 1000-candle-power lamp used for this purpose showed a specific consumption of 0.45 watts per candle power. Its quality was further improved by an arrangement for avoiding the damage to the stem caused by the excessive heat of the gas. Continued efforts were being made in large cities to improve the quality of street illumination. Some illuminating engineers preferred the furnishing a divergent beam to illuminate a wide area such as the entire front of a high building. The apparatus, which weighed only 600 pounds, was mounted on two wheels and could be operated by one man. The Illuminating Engineering Society, of which Dr. Charles Proteus Steinmetz was elected president in 1915, continued its active work during the year in stimulating and educating the public taste for better quality of illumination, especially as regards its influence on the human eye. The society published in September, 1915, a Code of Lighting for factories, mills, and other work places, embodying a systematic effort to diffuse reliable information on this highly important subject. One of the large accident insurance companies reported as the result of an extended investigation that 25 per cent of all the industrial accidents could be traced in one way or another to improper lighting. ELECTRIC POWER, TRANSMISSION OF. In the transmission of electric power there was no particularly notable work done in 1915. Existing transmission lines were extended as the demand for energy increased and became diversified. The maximum voltage, 150,000, that had been employed on several such lines in 1914, was not LOCOMOTIVE FOR CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY The first electrification for through traffic on a trunk line. Designed and built by General Electric Co. Operates at 3,000 volts direct current exceeded. Experience with the steel towers commonly used disclosed the fact that in several instances they were unable to resist the twisting action set up by high winds when heavily coated with ice and sleet, thus causing destruction of property and interruption of service. The Great Falls Power Company of Montana completed a plant of 60,000 horse power capacity on the Missouri River at the site from which the company derives its name. Late in the year this plant began to supply electric energy at 100,000 volts, over a line 140 miles long, to the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway for the electric locomotives on that portion of its line (about 230 miles in length) between Deer Lodge and Harlowton, that had been equipped for such operation. (See ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.) An interesting hydro-electric plant was put in operation during the year in Japan, noteworthy for the large amount of power developed and because it distributed energy at the highest tension of any transmission line in the world outside of the United States and Canada. This plant utilized the power of the Nippashi River, the outlet of Lake Inawashiro. Sixty thousand horse power developed at this location by a fall of 350 feet was being transmitted over two three-phase circuits at 115,000 volts, a distance of 145 miles to the city of Tokyo. The apparatus was supplied by manufacturers in England, Germany, and the United States. In Toledo, Ohio, an underground cable adapted to the unusually high voltage of 23,000 was put in use during the year. Hitherto, the maximum voltage for underground cables had been 13,200. The municipality of Treves, Prussia, was distributing electric energy throughout the city by underground cable at 25,000 volts, a more notable achievement even than that just mentioned. Before this cable was put in use it was tested for a half hour at 75,000 volts with three-phase alternating current and showed only 250 watts per kilometer dielectric loss. ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. Several important developments in the application of electric motive power to railways marked the year 1915. At the beginning of the year more than 2250 miles of steam railway tracks in the United States had been converted to electrical operation, using either third-rail or overhead conductor. In addition to motor cars in use on those lines there were more than 280 electric locomotives in regular service. During December the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway was making tests of new electric locomotives built for its 440 mile electrification in Montana and Idaho. These locomotives were the largest and most powerful electric engines ever built, weighing 282 tons, and were for operation at the highest voltage (3000) ever attempted with direct current. As shown in the illustration, they were of the double unit type, each half having the 4-4-4 wheel arrangement consisting of a fourwheel guiding truck and two four-wheel motor trucks with a 375-horse-power motor geared to each axle, giving a total rating of 3000 horse power for the double unit. Their one hour rating was 3440 horse power, giving a tractive effort of 85,000 pounds, while for starting, almost 135,000 pounds could be depended on. On a test run two of these locomotives hauled a train of 48 loaded cars, weighing 3000 tons, up a 2 per cent grade at a speed of 16 miles an hour. This train was followed up the grade by another com posed of 37 cars weighing 2000 tons, and pulled by two standard steam locomotives assisted by a Mallet engine as a pusher. This train went up the grade referred to at a speed of 9 miles an hour. The St. Paul engines were also notable for being the first direct-current locomotives ever built to use "regenerative" control, an arrangement for so connecting the motors when descending grades as to act as generators and return current to the line, thus retarding the train. Early in the year the Norfolk and Western Railway began the operation of a 30-mile stretch of its line in West Virginia with electric locomotives, illustrated in the 1914 YEAR BOOK. These machines operated with alternating current from an overhead conductor at 11,000 volts, and were hauling in regular service trains hav ing a total weight of 3250 tons. One of the important features of the polyphase motors used on these locomotives was their equipment also for regenerative braking but differing from that above mentioned on account of the use of alternating current. Another important electrification was that inaugurated by the Pennsylvania Railroad in September, between Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, and Paoli, Pa., about 20 miles distant. No electric locomotives were used, but 93 motor passenger coaches were employed, equipped with series-repulsion motors of 450 horse power, taking energy from an overhead conductor at 11,000 volts alternating current. This installation, in the opinion of the railway officials, increased the total capacity of Broad Street Station by more than 8 per cent, and the company was contemplating equipping the 12-mile Chestnut Hill branch in the same manner during 1916. In England, the London and South Western Railway began the electrification of nearly 50 miles of suburban lines near London, using 600volt direct current with a third rail. The Swedish State Railways began electric operation of their line from Kiruna to Riksgränsen in October. This attracted considerable attention because it was the first Swedish line to use electricity, and because of its northerly location, which for part of its length was within the Arctic Circle. ELECTRIC SHIP PROPULSION. See DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAYS. See ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; RAILWAYS. ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAYS AT CHICAGO. See SMOKE ABATEMENT. ELECTRO-METALLURGY. LURGY. See METAL ELEVATORS. A notable work of the year in this field was the completion of a 5,000,000bushel bulk grain elevator by the municipality of Seattle, Wash. It was built and owned by the city, by which it will be operated. It was designed to afford storage for the local flour mills, and to facilitate commerce, and especially the interchange between rail and ship transportation of the product of the grain fields of Montana, Idaho, and Washington. The new elevator was of concrete, 165 feet high, with a receiving capacity of 95 cars per each 24-hour day, and a shipping capacity of 20,000 bushels per hour. All equipment is electrically operated and access is given to tracks from four railroads, the structure standing between the dock and the tracks. The total cost was $281,862. A new method of controlling the elevators or lifts on the London Underground Railway was inaugurated this year. The attendants were stationed at the top and bottom landings instead of inside the cars, on the theory that a man was always available to deal with the inquiries of passengers, and could control the load ing of the cars better from the outside than from within. The method consisted of installing control boxes at the various landings which not only served to control the movements of the cars themselves but also to open and close the gates and doors by the action of compressed air. These control boxes were arranged for the electrical control both of the operating gear of the elevators, and the air for the doors and gates. Fifty-one elevators were to be equipped for operation in this manner, and the Central London Railway was also to have the new arrangement installed on the elevators of older pattern. ELKIN, JOHN PRATT. American jurist, died Oct. 3, 1915. He was born in Indiana Co., Pa., in 1860, and graduated from the Law School of the University of Michigan in 1884. He was admitted to the bar, and began active practice. In 1885 and in 1887 he served in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives; from 1895 to 1899 was Deputy Attorney-General of the State; and in the latter year he was elected Attorney-General. He was Republican candidate for Governor in 1902, and in 1905 was appointed to the Su preme bench of the State. He was at one time chairman of the Republican State Committee, and was a delegate to many Republican National and State conventions. EMERSON, LUTHER ORLANDO. American composer and hymn writer, died Sept. 29, 1915. He was born in Parsonfield, Me., in 1820, and received an academic education. Studying music, he became teacher and choir master at Salem, Mass., and was afterwards organist and director in the Bulfinch Place Church in Boston. He directed about 300 musical festivals and conventions, and made over 70 selections of church and other music. He also compiled many other books for piano and organ, and composed largely. He composed the music for the song, "We Are Coming, Father Abraham," popular in the days of the Civil War. EMETIN. See PYORRHEA ALVEOLARIS. GRATION. list of more than 200 associations of employers. Such organizations are an inevitable accompaniment of modern industrial conditions and hence are found in England, France, and Germany. Everywhere their purposes are the same. They seek to advance the legislative interests of employers, to secure the advantages of coöperation and combination, and especially to oppose the political and industrial activities of organized labor. Thus they have in all these countries made use of lockouts, black lists, employment bureaus with registers of workmen, professional strike breakers, strike funds, "fake" unions, detective agencies, armed guards, and spies. On the other hand, there has been an increasing tendency on the part of employers to recognize unions, to enter into collective agreements, and to provide suitable machinery for the settlement of grievances and trade disputes. Only a few notable associations can be described here. THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MANUFACTURERS began in 1895 as a voluntary association, but 10 years later was chartered as a membership corporation under the laws of New York. Its membership includes individuals, partnerships, and corporations in all kinds of manufacturing businesses. In 1915 it had about 4000 members with combined capital of $10,000,000,000 and employing about 5,000,000 workers. It thus claimed to be "the largest and strongest trade organization in the world, whether one considers capital invested, hands employed, or output." It has a foreign trade department for studying opportunities in international commerce; a legal department for supplying advice to members on State and corporation law; and a foreign and domestic collection department. It has also a Committee on Industrial Betterment for studying plans for improving the conditions of labor. During the summer of 1915 this committee made a report on the minimum wage at home and abroad. In the view of the committee the weight of the argument was against the advisability of establishing a legal minimum wage. It held that "the general operation of the legislative minimum wage has everywhere been unsatisfactory to employers and employees." Competent students, in commenting on this report, universally condemned it as warped in spirit and as setting forth general opinions unsupported by facts. The annual membership dues of the association are $50. As it can conduct no business ventures, it has formed an auxiliary corporation, the National Manufacturers' Company, which publishes two export journals and the official magazine, American Industries. Its headquarters are at 30 Church Street, New York City. EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATIONS. The first important association of employers in the United States was the Stove Founders' National Defense Association, formed in 1886. It was followed by numerous others before the close of the century. Most of these were formed along trade lines and THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR INDUSTRIAL DEhad for their main purpose the meeting of trade FENSE was formed in 1907 through the initiative union demands, though they also sought to ad- of President Van Cleave of the National Associavance the general interests of the trade. There tion of Manufacturers. The primary object was followed more powerful organizations, including to focus the power of numerous associated ememployers as such, regardless of industrial lines. ployers in opposing legislation deemed "unwise," These sprang up in various cities and States "vicious class legislation," and to promote legisunder such names as "Citizens' Alliance," "Citi- lation deemed "wise." The Council virtually zens' Industrial Association," "Employers' Asso- consists of a chairman, treasurer, and counsel, ciation," and "Manufacturers' Association." these being, respectively, two chief officers of the The most important of these is the National As- N. A. M., and Mr. James A. Emery as counsel. sociation of Manufacturers described below. In The constituent organizations contribute as they 1913 the investigating commission of Congress, see fit to the necessary expenses, there being no created to inquire into such associations on the fixed membership fee, but each grants the counsel score of the scandals connecting members of Con- full power of attorney to represent them in State gress with the legislative activities of the Na- and national legislative contests. tional Association of Manufacturers, secured a THE AMERICAN ANTI-BOYCOTT ASSOCIATION |