sides his general geological map of western Africa, this scientist has completed geological maps of colonies in Senegal, Guinea, Dahomey, Upper Senegal, and Niger. Great extensions of railway systems will facilitate future explorations. Notable is the completion of the TransAfrican Railroad from Kabolo, on the Congo, to Lake Tanganyika, which already had rail connection with the port of Ujiji.

NORTH AMERICA. (For the explorations of Bernier, McMillan and Stefansson, see POLAR RESEARCH. For Alaskan work, see ALASKA.) With its strictly limited regions of unknown territory, North America has been comparatively neglected, except in the Dominion of Canada. The most interesting work in that country is the rediscovery in Hudson Bay of the lost islands of Gerritz' chart (1612), discovered by Hudson in his last voyage (1610-11), concerning which there have been much doubt and discussion. R. J. Flaherty has skirted this group, which lies to the north of James Bay, between 55° and 60° north latitude. The largest of the three islands is 100 miles in length, and the area of the group is about 4000 square miles. The most notable discovery in the United States is the Sun Temple, unearthed in the Mesa Grande Park by Dr. J. W. Fewkes. Built as early as 1300, for religious and ceremonial purposes, it is the most striking prehistoric ruin in America. Its 25 rooms are enclosed by walls 4 feet thick and over 1000 feet in length.

SOUTH AMERICA. The Bolivian-Brazilian Boundary Commission has completed its exploration and delimination of the boundary of the two countries along the Abuma, the Madeira and the Raquirran rivers. Between July and October, 1914, Dr. Farabee explored portions of the valley of the Upper Amazon, giving special attention to the tribes living in the watersheds of the Ucayale and adjacent streams. In March, 1915, he began a journey from the Upper Purus River for the purpose of skirting the unknown frontiers of Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru. Among additions to the geographic literature of 1915 is the astonishing report of Maj. P. H. Fawcett on his explorations of extensive and hitherto unvisited forest areas of Bolivia. He states that in regions distant from the navigable rivers, there are numerous large tribes, aggregating "at least 100,000 savages," who have had no contact with white men. These tribes are for the most part anthropophagus, wage continuous wars, and generally live in communal fashion. Within 15 leagues of the provincial capital of Santa Cruz there are hostile savages yet living under Stone Age conditions. Savage tribes have also barred from travel the Mamore and Heat rivers. Professor Bingham made in 1915 his fifth expedition to South America. His Peruvian researches were pursued in the valleys of the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers. In addition to geographic and archæological work, large collections were made of new and of ancient food plants.

ASIA. During Dr. Filippi's recent explorations, he discovered that the Remo Glacier, on the crest of the Karakoram Range between Cashmir and Afghanistan, drains both into the interior of Asia and also into the Indian Ocean. It proves to be the source of the Yarkand, an affluent of the Tarim River to the northeast, and of Stryok, the main tributary of the Indus to the southwest. An English-American expedition has made an ethnological exploration of the

valley of the Lower Yenesei, under Miss Czaplicka, Oxford University, and Mr. Hall, University of Pennsylvania. Studying first the Samoyeds, the party wintered with the Tungus, a very primitive folk, and subsequently made researches among the Tartars.

Sir Aurel Stein's recent discoveries in East Turkestan have been extensive and important. He began his explorations from Tun-huang, southeast of the Gobi Desert, where he visited the temple of the Thousand Buddhists. Thence he traced for 250 miles, across a sterile desert, an ancient wall of China which was erected at least a century before the beginning of the Christian era. This wall was built with great engineering skill of reed and brushwood fascines, filled with clay or gravel. It was surmounted with watchtowers, etc., and abundant remains were found of the soldiers who occupied it as a defensive force. It appears that the adjacent sterile regions had been made habitable by extensive irrigation systems. Stein explored thoroughly the ruins of Khara Koto, which he identifies with Marco Polo's city of Etzina, the ancient outfitting station of merchants making the 40-day march across the desert to Karakoram, the old capital of Mongolia. Among the ruins were found Buddhist manuscripts and prints, frescocs, stuccos, reliefs, records on paper, coins, ornaments, etc. He also explored the region around Turfan, mapped large areas of the Dry Mountains, and portions of the former bed of the Oxus. Although turned back by the war, the Voisins, Segalen, Lartigue (French) expedition succeeded in reaching as far west as Li-kiangfou, on the Yangtse in Yunnan, Western China. The Smithsonian expedition for biological research along the Siberian coast, under Koren, obtained a large collection of birds and of Arctic fossils.

EUROPE. Some additions have been made to a

knowledge of the Kola Peninsula, by the survey and construction by the Russian government of a railway from Vologda, on the PetrogradArchangel Railroad, northward to Kola on the Northern Coast, thus affording an ice-free harbor.

OCEANIC. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, continuing its work of offshore exploring, has located the edge of the continental shelf along a large part of the South Atlantic Coast. The 100-fathom curve lies quite far seaward, extending in some instances into the Gulf Stream. The wire-drag operations of the Survey have covered 214 square miles in Alaskan waters and 250 in the Atlantic. Surveys in the Philippines disclose the existence of a submerged range of coral mountains, extending southwesterly for 200 miles from the south end of Panay. The Cagayenes and other small islands are the summits of the coral range. The Sulu Sea is divided into two deep basins, wherein a maximum depth of 18,294 feet was found. Hydrographic surveys of the delta of the Obi resulted in the discovery of a deep channel through which sea-going ships of deep draught can ascend the river, thus opening interior Siberia to sea-traffic. Exploration in the field of terrestrial magnetism has been continued during 1915 under the direction of Dr. Bauer of the Carnegie Magnetic Institute. The Carnegie Institute's work included observations at more than 200 sea-stations, and extended from 60° N. latitude, in Bering Sea, to Port Lyttleton, N. Z., in the Southern Hemisphere.

EXPLOSIVES AND MUNITION FACTORIES. See UNITED STATES AND THE War. EXPLOSIVES. See CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRIAL, section so entitled.

EXPOSITIONS. During the year two great international expositions have been held in the United States: the Panama-California Exposition in San Diego, Cal., and the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, Cal.

This was

PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION. held in San Diego, Cal., and the history of its inception and development has been given in the YEAR BOOKS for 1911, p. 247; 1912, p. 216; 1913, p. 236, and 1914, p. 235. It was opened on January 1st, with appropriate ceremonies, including an address by the Hon. William G. McAdoo, who represented President Wilson on that occasion. The beauty of the exposition has impressed those who have visited it and its influence in bringing about a greater appreciation of the possibilities of the Spanish Colonial architecture will be its lasting lesson. On December 4th, an official announcement was made that the Panama Exposition, opened on Jan. 1, 1915, would continue throughout 1916 as the PanamaCalifornia International Exposition. The 1916 exposition will open on January 1st, the day following the official closing of the 1915 fair. Foreign exhibits valued at several million dollars, from the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, just closing, are to be brought to San Diego. Two of the largest exhibits at the San Francisco Exposition-the Canadian and the Italian-have been obtained, and other exhibits promised are the French, Swiss, Spanish, Netherlands, and Russian. See also ARCHITECTURE. PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION. (See YEAR BOOKS, 1912, p. 216; 1913, p. 236; and 1914, p. 236.) This exposition was held in San Francisco, Cal. The touching of a button by President Wilson in the White House gave the electric signal that opened the exposition exactly at noon, Pacific time, on February 20th, which was made a legal holiday throughout California. The exercises included addresses by Hon. Franklin K. Lane, who represented President Wilson, Gov. Hiram W. Johnson, and Charles C. Moore, president of the exposition. The exposition continued until midnight on December 4th, when President Moore closed the festivities by pressing a button that turned off the electric display. The following words are from the message which President Wilson sent to the formal closing exercises:

"The Panama-Pacific International Exposition: which in its conception and successful accomplishment gave striking evidence of the practical genius and artistic taste of America; which in its interesting and unusual exhibits afforded impressive illustration of the development of arts and peace; and which in its motive and object was eloquent of the new spirit which is to unite East and West and make all the world partners in the common enterprises of progress and humanity." Thirty-nine foreign nations and 37 States and 3 Territories of the American Union were represented at the exposition. It was estimated that there were 80,000 exhibitors whose displays were valued at $350,000,000. The daily attendance, which averaged about 62,000, began with 245,143 on the opening day and reached its highest number-348,472, on November 2nd, San Francisco Day. The total was 18,413,399. There were 800 congresses and conventions held

during the life of the exposition. The financial results of the exposition were most satisfactory. In abbreviated form the data are as follows: cost of exposition to opening, $18,365,193.69; income to opening, $16,988,555.79; deficit on opening, $1,376,637.90; operating surplus of exposition period, $2,571,807.79; estimated net profit on closing, $1,195,169.89; estimated net loss of wrecking period, $160,000; and estimated final net profit, $1,040,000. In addition to this surplus the exposition has paid for and given to the city the Municipal Auditorium, in the Civic Center, at a cost of $1,086,000, and the $50,000 pipe organ now in Festival Hall. In January Congress passed a law permitting the minting of special coins commemorative of the exposition as follows: Three thousand 50-dollar pieces; 10,000 22-dollar pieces; 25,000 1-dollar pieces, all in gold, and 200,000 half-dollar silver pieces. The law permitted the mint to deliver these coins at their par value, and the exposition was authorized to put its own selling price on the coins. See also ARCHITECTURE; and PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.

OTHER EXPOSITIONS. Among minor and local expositions held in the United States may be mentioned the First National Exposition of Chemical Industries held in New York City during September 20-25. It is described under CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRIAL (q.v.). The expositions held abroad during the year include the British Industries Fair in London, England, during May 10-21; the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto, Canada, during August 28-Sept. 13; the Swiss Exposition of Toys in Zurich, Switzerland, during October; and a traveling exposition, the proceeds of which were designed for the care of war cripples and invalids under the auspices of the Red Cross Society during the autumn in Berlin, Breslau, Budapest, Magdeburg, and Cassel. In the Orient the second annual exhibition of Siamese agriculture and domestic manufactures was held in Bisanuloke, Siam, during March 17-21; a Chinese National Exposition was opened in Peking on October 10th; an Industrial Competitive Exhibition was held in Seoul, Chosen, during September 10-October 31, and a Japanese Exposition was held in Santiago, Chile, during September.

COMING EXPOSITIONS. The opening of the National Exposition of Panama has again been postponed until Jan. 21, 1916. An International Exposition of Electrical Appliances and also a general Spanish Exposition is announced as in preparation to be held in Barcelona, Spain, during 1917. Announcement is made of the organization of committees for the preparation of a celebration in 1916 of the 250th anniversary of the founding of the city of Newark, N. J., and of the 200th anniversary of the founding of San Antonio, Texas, by the Franciscan monks. See also ARCHITECTURE.

FABRE, JEAN HENRI, a distinguished French entomologist, died at Orange, France, on Oct. 11, 1915. He was born at St. Léons, Avignon, in 1823, taught for several years in the Lycée of Avignon, and was afterward professor of physics at the College of Ajaccio. Later he retired to Lérignan, where he wrote his greatest work, Souvenirs entomologiques (10 vols. 18791907), which was crowned by the Institute. His other works are: La science élémentaire, a series of lectures (1862-65); Histoire de la bûche (1866); Notions préliminaires de phy

sique (1867-70); Le Livre d'histoires (1868); Les ravageurs (1870); Astronomie élémentaire (1872); Les auxiliaires (1873); Lectures scientifiques: zoölogie (1873); Botanique (1874); Premiers éléments de physique (1874); De chimie (1875); De science naturelle (1875); Les serviteurs (1875); La plante (1875); L'In dustrie (1875); Cours complet d'enseignement littéraire et scientifique (1876); Livre des champs (1879); Les inventeurs et leurs inventions (1880); La vie des insectes (1910). Fabre was made a corresponding member of the Institute and a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Parts of his writings have been published in English, as Insect Life (1901); The Life and Love of the Insect, translated by A. T. de Mattos (1911); Social Life in the Insect World, translated by Bernard Miall (1913); The Life of the Spider and The Life of the Fly, translated by A. T. de Mattos (1913). FAILURES.

so entitled.

See FINANCIAL REVIEW, section

the established lines of activity were maintained by the council in State and local federations, foreign missions, home missions, religious education, social service, evangelism, Sunday observance, temperance, and peace and arbitration. The council promoted a religious exhibit and conducted a continuous religious campaign at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, with evangelistic meetings, daily lectures, and conferences. In aid of the promotion of international friendliness through the churches, 400,000 books and pamphlets were distributed and 170,000 letters sent out. A Christian embassy to Japan was well received, and an investigation was conducted on the Pacific Coast concerning the Japanese problem in the United States. Delegates afterward came from Japan for fraternal conference with American workers. A committee on the special interests of the colored denominations was projected. The general secretary, Rev. Charles S. MacFarland, visited Holland, Switzerland, England, France, and Germany, representing the

FALKLAND ISLANDS. A British colony composed of a group of islands in the South Atlantic. They are East Falkland (3000 square miles), West Falkland (2300), and about 100 smaller islands (totaling about 1200 square miles). South Georgia, a group of islands 542° S., with an area of about 1000 square miles, a great whaling station, is a dependency of the Falkland Islands. Inclusive of South Georgia the population numbered in 1911, 3275 (2370 males and 905 females). Estimated population Dec. 31, 1913, 3223. Sheep farming is the sole industry of the colony, the entire country being wild moorland fit for little besides pasture. There are no trees. There were in 1913 about 698,000 sheep, 7821 cattle, and 3528 horses. Hides, skins, horns, hoofs, bones, tallow, wool, and guano are the exports. Whale produce exported in 1913 was valued at £1,252,932, of which £443,378 from South Georgia. Imports and exports for 1913 were valued at £239,222 and £1,460,219 respectively (£93,913 and £471,156 in 1911). The United Kingdom contributed imports valued at £152,958, and received exports €750,994. Total tonnage entered and cleared, 500,449 (315,278 in 1911). Revenue, 1913, £42,929 (1911, £35,349); expenditure, £25,238 (£22,460). There is no public debt. The only town is Stanley, with about 950 inhabitants. It has a fine inner and outer harbor and is a coaling station for vessels rounding Cape Horn. Beyond the town limits there are no roads. The islands were taken by Great Britain in 1832 for the protection of the whale fisheries. Dependencies besides South Georgia are the South Shetlands, Graham's Land, the South Orkneys, and the Sandwich group.

FARABEE, DR.-HIS EXPLORATIONS. See EXPLORATION, South America.

FARATSIHITE. See MINERALOGY. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. See AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK.

FARMING. See AGRICULTURE.

FAWCETT, MAJOR P. H.-HIS EXPLORATIONS. See EXPLORATION, South America.

and he addressed over 100 conferences. The council's year ended free of debt, but it was admitted that the growing demands of the work call for much larger expenditure in 1916. The annual meeting of the executive committee of the council was held at Columbus, Ohio, on December 8-10th, was attended by 1150 members and delegates, and was addressed by the President of the United States. The administrative committee is in close and constant communication with the churches of the belligerent nations of Europe, looking toward future opportunities of reconciliation, a delegation being in readiness to go to Europe at the earliest opportunity.

The denominations affiliated with the Federal Council are as follows: Baptist (North), Free Baptist, Christian, Congregational, Disciples of Christ, Evangelical Association, Evangelical Synod, Society of Friends, Lutheran General Synod, Methodist Episcopal Church, Methodist Episcopal Church (South), German Evangelical Synod, National Baptist Convention (colored), the Mennonite Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America, the Methodist Protestant Church, the Moravian Church, the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, the Presbyterian Church in the United States (South), the Primitive Methodist Church, the Protestant Episcopal Church, the Reformed Church in America, the Reformed Church in the United States, the Reformed Episcopal Church, the Reformed Presbyterian Church (General Synod), the Seventh Day Baptist Church, the United Presbyterian Church, the United Brethren Church, the United Evangelical Church, the United Presbyterian Church, and the Welsh Presbyterian Church.

FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS. See BANKS AND BANKING.

FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM. See BANKS AND BANKING, under the section so entitled.

FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION. See TRUSTS.

FEDERATED MALAY STATES. A British protectorate composed of four states in the Malay Peninsula, as follows (area in square miles, population census of 1911):