owing to his activity in municipal Socialism was one of the most prominent civic officials in Germany. Perhaps his most notable achieve ment was the establishment of the University of Frankfort in 1914. See UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. He resigned as mayor of Frankfort in 1912.

ADULTERATION. See FOOD AND NUTRITION, passim.

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE. The 67th annual meeting of the association was held in Columbus, Ohio, Dec. 27, 1915, to Jan. 1, 1916. There were 750 members in attendance. At the same time the following societies affiliated with the Association held their meetings: American Association of Economic Entomologists; American Mathematical Society; American Microscopical Society; American Nature Study Society; American Physical Society; American Phyto-pathological Society; American Society of Naturalists; Association of Official Seed Analysts of North America; Botanical Society of America; Entomological Society of America; Society for Horticultural Science; Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology; Students and Collectors of Ohio Archæology; Wilson Ornithological Club. The opening meeting was held in the college chapel of the Ohio State University, over 1200 persons being present. The total number of registered members of the association was 750. Dr. Charles W. Eliot, the retiring president, gave an address on "The Fruits, Prospects, and Lessons of Recent Biological Science." Three public lectures were delivered: by Dr. Douglas W. Johnson, on "Surface Features of Europe as a Factor in the War"; Dr. Raymond F. Bacon, on "The Industrial Fellowships of the Mellon Institute"; and Dr. Frank K. Cameron, on "The Fertilizer Resources of the United States." The council of the association decided that members of the affiliated societies not now members of the American Association be invited to join it in 1916 without payment of the usual entrance fee. The following officers elected: President, C. R. Van Hise; vice-presidents-mathematics, L. P. Eisenhart; physics, H. A. Bumstead; engineering, E. L. Corthell; geology and geography, R. D. Salisbury; zoölogy, G. H. Parker; botany, T. J. Burrill; anthropology and psychology, F. W. Hodge; social and economic science, Louis I. Dublin; education, L. P. Ayres; agriculture, W. H. Jordan.

were

W.

E. Henderson was elected general secretary, and C. Stuart Gager secretary of the council. The Pacific Coast meeting of the association, held in connection with the Panama International Exposition, took place in San Francisco during August 2-9. The president, W. W. Campbell, gave an address on "Science and Civilization." Three public evening addresses made, respectively, by R. A. Daly, W. B. Scott, and P. S. Reinsch. Over 90 sessions of the association were held during the week. The total registered attendance of members was 606.

were

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE. The annual meeting of the association was held at Manchester in the early part of September. The number of members and associates (1438), although not disappointing, considering the war, was small as compared with previous meetings. The reception by the Lord Mayor in the School of Technology on Wednesday evening was the only general social function

of the week. The citizens' lectures given in Manchester and other towns in the neighborhood attracted large audiences. They were on the following subjects: "Education and War," by Prof. F. W. Gamble; "The Strategic Geography of the War," by Dr. Vaughan Cornish; "The Making of a Big Gun," by Dr. W. Rosenhain; "Daily Uses of Astronomy," by A. R. Hinks; "Health Conditions in the Modern Workshop," by Prof. B. Moore; "Formation of the Sun and Stars," by Rev. A. L. Cortie; "Some Lessons from Astronomy," by Prof. H. H. Turner; and "Curiosities and Defects of Sight," by Dr. W. Stirling. Grants of money amounting to £968 were appropriated for scientific purposes on behalf of the general committee to members in the following sections: Mathematical and physical science, chemistry, geology, zoology, geography, economic science and statistics, engineering, anthropology, physiology, botany, and education. Notable addresses were made during the meeting by Sir Thomas H. Holland, on "The Organization of Science"; Prof. W. M. Bayliss, on "The Physiological Importance of Phase Boundaries"; Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, on "Educational Science"; Prof. Grenville Cole, on "Geology"; Major H. G. Lyons, on "The Importance of Geographical Research"; Dr. H. S. Hele-Shaw, on "Organization to Meet German Competition at the End of the War"; and Prof. Charles G. Seligman, on "The Early History of the AngloEgyptian Sudan from the Point of View of the Ethnologist." The next meeting will be held at Newcastle.

ADVENT CHRISTIANS. See ADVENTISTS. ADVENTISTS. The largest branch of the denomination, the Seventh Day Adventists, had in the United States at the close of 1914, 68,203 communicants, 1913 churches, and 528 ministers. The members of the denomination contribute for evangelistic work about $3,000,000 annually. Of this amount about 60 per cent is raised in tithes, which is the main source of revenue. The church buildings and property are valued at about $13,000,000. There are nearly 800 schools with an enrollment of about 30,000. The denomination maintains 37 publishing houses and branches under its control. Over 1600 missionaries are maintained in 67 different countries. About $1,000,000 is expended in the support of this work. The other branches of the denomination are the Advent Christians, with about 26,000 communicants, 550 churches, and 528 ministers; The Church of God, with about 600 communicants, 20 churches, and 32 ministers; The Life and Advent Union, with 509 communicants, 12 churches, and 12 ministers; and The Church of God in Jesus Christ, with 2224 communicants, 68 churches, and 61 ministers.

ÆGEAN ISLANDS. See GREECE. AERONAUTICS. The year 1915 marked the point where the construction of aeroplanes passed beyond the experimental stage and became an industry. Every detail of their structure and equipment was tested in the great war. The raids of the Zeppelins, largely futile and causing little damage, the destruction of men and property, the various services on the Continent rendered by the aviators of the fighting armies, and the actual combats between air craft, were all features of the great war which will be found discussed elsewhere in the YEAR Book under WAR OF THE NATIONS, NAVAL PROG

RESS, and MILITARY PROGRESS. Naturally the military developments led more to wholesale manufacture than to experimentation, which, when it did take place, was practical rather than scientific. The details of new work and actual construction and performance, so far as the belligerent countries are concerned, are meagre and unreliable. In the United States the manufacture of aeroplanes vastly increased, and by the close of 1915 America was reported to be the largest manufacturer of aëroplanes and their parts, its sales being estimated at almost $5,000,000.

The result of this activity was the organization of large factories by American manufacturers either in the United States or in Canada. Thus, the Curtiss Company at the end of the year was occupying a large plant in Buffalo, and was said to have contracts for about $15,000,000 worth of aeroplanes, to be able to turn out daily a complete America, the largest size of aëroplane, and to be preparing to turn out daily five so-called Canadas-this in addition to the wholesale manufacture of the standard types of the concern. The Wright Aëroplane Company of Dayton, Ohio, changed hands and was capitalized at $5,000,000. Other works in the United States were the Glenn L. Martin Company, of Los Angeles, the Sturtevant Aëroplane Company, of Massachusetts, the Burgess Company, of Marblehead, Mass., the Thomas Company, of Ithaca, N. Y., and a large number of smaller concerns which were getting ready for increased business.

Many of these manufacturers and aëroplane engineers late in December assembled in conference with members of the Naval Consulting Board and the Society of Aëroplane Engineers to consider the standardization of aëroplanes on a basis similar to that followed so successfully in the American automobile industry. It was urged at this meeting that there be engineering cooperation and standardization of materials, designs, and methods of specification and test, and it was the sense of the various representatives at the conference that the adoption of suitable standards would lay a real commercial foundation for the aëroplane industry in America for future years. Committees of the Society of Aëroplane Engineers were appointed to consider the problems of nomenclature and standardization, and these committees were to work in harmony with the engineers of the army and navy.

Gradually the size and strength of aëroplanes had increased, and machines were constructed by the fighting nations in Europe on a scale that probably never would have been attempted in more pacific times. Biplanes and triplanes spreading over 100 feet were in service, and were being built, while power plants in duplicate and triplicate were being installed on these as well as on smaller machines. One German triplane was stated to have eight Maybach motors coupled in pairs, each pair driving one of four propellers, two of which will drive the plane under ordinary conditions. Provision was being made for larger crews, of six or more men, 20 in the German machine just mentioned, and the weight of bombs, ammunition, fuel, and provisions was far in excess of the most sanguine hopes entertained by designers and aviators a few years previously. In addition much attention was paid to stabilizing, and military

machines were being better equipped with various adjuncts that would relieve the pilot of strain and effort, and better enable him to observe, reconnoitre, drop bombs, or engage in offensive combat with other craft. In the best military aeroplanes the aviator's hands and feet could be taken off the controls long enough for the aviator to use a camera, release a bomb, examine or mark a map, or aim and fire a rifle or pistol.

The year's progress in engine construction was largely towards more powerful plants. Many 12-cylinder engines were being made in sizes ranging from 100 to 250 horse power, and it was observed that the stationary cylinder type was in many places supplanting the rotary engine which previously had the preference. The stationary cylinder engine was found more simple, easier to repair, and of greater reliability, following as it did lines laid down by automobile designers.

In America, Great Britain, France, and Germany, the type favored was the twin-six with stationary cylinders of the V form. The motor with stationary cylinders demonstrated itself as the most efficient, and in fact such an engine of the stationary water cooled type was used in the duration record flight of 24 hours made in 1914 by Reinhold Boehm. Of course for military aviators record breaking was not so much an object as reliability and great horse power to carry the weights-observers, bombs, and other apparatus-required. The Vtype motor also showed economy in fuel consumption and a greater radius of action, while in its larger size it had less weight and less bulk than the vertical cylinder engine, and might offer less resistance to the air in flight. The twin-six or twelve-cylinder V-type of motor seemed to be not only a development but the accepted form during the year 1915, and many authorities thought that the 8-cylinder motor would be supplanted by the 6- or 12-cylinder motor, as the latter balanced better, had more torque, and ran smoother.

In France, the Renault Company, which developed an air-cooled 12-cylinder motor of 100 horse power, was manufacturing these machines at the Schneider Automobile Works at Lyons and elsewhere, so that about ten motors a day were turned out for government use, while England, the United States, and other countries were using these motors experimentally. In Great Britain, a notable engine development during the year was the British Sunbeam, a 12-cylinder V-type motor built for the great fighting biplanes of the Royal Air Craft Factory. This motor weighed 1085 pounds complete, was water cooled, and could develop 225 horse power. Two such motors were installed on one of the big tractor biplanes which had a wing spread of 70 feet. The motor had a speed of 2000 revolutions per minute, which was reduced to 1000 revolutions for the propeller. Another British engine, somewhat lighter, was built for British experiment by the Rolls-Royce Company, which was a twin-six of 250 horse power and weighed 800 pounds, while a number of American motors were being tested by the British government at the Royal Air Craft Factory at Farnborough.

Among other engines brought out in 1915 was a 12-cylinder V-type water cooled motor weighing 720 pounds, designed by L. E. Rausenberger,

and planned to give 150 horse power at a normal speed of 120 revolutions per minute. The cylinders are staggered so that the connecting rods of opposite cylinders are placed side by side on the same crank pin. Another notable engine, the Ashmusen 105 horse power motor, water cooled, with cylinders horizontally opposed and weighing 345 pounds, was being developed during the year. The bore and stroke were 3.75 inches and 4.5 inches respectively. Another 12-cylinder motor of the year was the Johnson 2-cycle type of the 90° V-form with a bore of 5 inches and a stroke of 4 inches, with a rating of 150 to 180 horse power, at a speed ranging from 1150 to 1400 revolutions per minute. This engine weighed 598 pounds.

While extensive manufacturing work was being carried on, at the same time the mechanical engineering features were investigated, and Prof. Charles E. Lucke, of Columbia University, was testing modern aëroplane engines for the National Aeroplane Advisory Board, and it was hoped that there would be a contest for aëroplane motors to be held by the United States navy, in which a large number would receive exhaustive scientific tests.

MISCELLANEOUS DEVELOPMENTS. In the various machines turned out during the year from the Curtiss works in Buffalo a number of technical advances were to be noted. In one machine built specially for war purposes, and capable of carrying three passengers besides the pilot, tested during the summer, an American record for climbing with considerable weight was made, as well as a capacity of great speed in ordinary flying demonstrated. With two passengers, an ascent of 8200 feet was made in 27 minutes, and with three passengers a considerably greater elevation was attained in a proportionate time. Here the total live load was 800 pounds and 8300 feet was reached when the barograph ceased recording, and the ascent was continued for another five minutes. The American record for height with two passengers previous to this was 5187, and the world's record with three passengers, 15,650 feet, was made by an Austrian aviator in 1914. This Curtiss machine was of the tractor type where the passengers were placed in a cockpit in front of the pilot, who is located behind the planes. The 160 horse power engine was capable of carrying a load of 1500 pounds dead weight. The control of the machine was said to be perfect and a speed of 94 miles an hour was made without the pilot's touching the wheel.

a

At the end of the year there was building at the yard of the Curtiss Company of Buffalo what was considered to be the largest and most powerful flying boat aloft. This craft was development of the America which was designed and constructed to cross the Atlantic in 1914, and which was discussed in the 1914 YEAR BOOK. The America late in 1914 was purchased by the British Admiralty, and was put in commission with the Coast Defense Aeroplane Squad in connection with the troop transports crossing the English Channel, as she was able to warn such craft against submarines, and it was stated that she destroyed three German submarines and prevented attacks on British transports in the Channel. Accord ingly the British Admiralty gave orders during the year, first for 12 and then for 20 flying boats of the America class, as they seemed a

most practical defense against submarines, inasmuch as they had a much greater speed and a deep sea vision, so that they could hunt down the submarines and either capture or destroy them with their own bombs, or indicate their position to the protective fleet of fast motor

boats.

a

This battleship aëroplane, as it was termed, building at the end of the year 1915 at the Curtiss Company, was a triple screw triplane weighing, fully equipped, 21,450 pounds. It had a hull of cedar planking, sheathed with copper on the under side and riveted to stout ash ribs. The boat was 68 feet long, with a beam of 20 feet. It had a V-shaped bottom ending in a straight stem forward, while its rear was cut off sharply, so as to facilitate rising from the sea. The lines of the hull were carefully developed in the light of marine experience, and the hull itself was divided into 12 water-tight compartments, one-third of which could keep the machine floating should the hull be pierced and several compartments flooded. The boat contained a conning tower for the control apparatus and the navigating instruments, cabin for the crew of eight, containing the fuel tanks, ammunition, and stores. The fuel supply was 700 gallons of gasolene, 80 gallons oil, sufficient to give the machine (at a speed of 75 miles an hour) a cruising radius of 675 miles. The superstructure consisted of three supporting planes, with a span of 133 feet, and a chord of 10 feet, with a gap of 10 feet between each two planes, the total area of support being about 4000 square feet. The tip of each lower wing was fitted with a pontoon to prevent digging into the water when running on the surface or when at anchor. The propelling engines consisted of six 160 horse power water cooled V-type engines, which were coupled in twin units of 320 horse power, each unit driving an air screw about 15 feet long. One unit was placed amidships and drove a central pusher screw, and the two others were mounted on the edges of the centre plane on either side and above the cabin, so as to drive a tractor air screw. There was an electric starter auxiliary engine of 40 horse power which generated the current required for the automatic stabilizer, the drift indicator, and the minor apparatus. This auxiliary engine also drove a water propeller for water navigation.

This new flying boat took into consideration every device known for safety and for the remote contingencies of engine failure, as with even one engine running the pilot could climb out of reach of gun fire as well as keep on any desired course. The steering apparatus consisted of a balanced rudder of 54 square feet area, with a keel-fin of 46 square feet area. Longitudinal stability was secured by a tail-fin of 126 square feet area, and an elevator of 96 square feet area. Transverse stability was provided by interconnected ailerons hinged to supporting planes. Nothing definite was revealed as to the armament of this flying boat, but it was stated that it was possible that even a six-pounder might be carried in place of the usual one and one-half pound aircraft gun. While American authorities were not entirely conversant with the most recent practice of European design and construction, yet it was believed that the Curtiss triplane represented a recent and extraordinary development.