1835 1900

GOVERNMENT. The King is the executive, as

Exp. extraordinary.. 1,490 95,102 151,747

*Direct taxes, 73.166,000 franes; customs, 57,803,650; excise, 81,138,300; registration, 77.253,000; revenue-earning administrations, 371.925,730; domains, dividends, interest, etc., 31,635,090; repayments, etc., 8,458,324.

Service of the debt, 198,711,930; civil list, 5,479,090; justice, 30,636,400; foreign affairs, 4,990.846; interior, 7,792,915; sciences and arts, 40,679,402; colonies, 1,262,700; industry and labor, 26,764,217; railways, posts, telegraphs, 255,728,463; war, 67,976,440; gendarmerie, 10,379,460; finance, 24,385,900; agricul ture and public works, 30,446,746; repayments, etc., 2,826,000.

The 1914 budget is detailed as follows, in thousands of franes: Revenue-property taxes, 30, 362; personal taxes, 27,257; trade licenses, 9500; tax on incomes, 18,000; motor cars, 1500; cinemas, 500; mines, 29; customs, 72,031; excise, 94,703; various, 1652; registration, etc., 49,100; succession, 32,100; stamps, 14,500; fines, etc., 3013; rivers, etc., 3690; railways, 362,300; telegraph and telephone, 23,535; post offices, 27,950; steamboats, 2210; domains, etc., 5590; various, 28,179; repayments, 9609;-total, 807,313. Expenditure public debt, 217,503; civil list, dotations, 5614; justice, 32,248; foreign affairs, 5127; interior, 7979; sciences and arts, 43,179; industry, 26.873; railways, 246,484; marine, posts, telegraphs, 54,693; war and gendarmerie, 101,096; finance, 26,544; public works and agriculture, 35,139; colonies, 1443; repay ments, etc., 2826; total, 806,754.

The total consolidated debt in 1835 was 96,841,080 francs; in 1870, 682,880,914; in 1900, 2,650,898,151; in 1910, 3,703,403,693; on Jan. 1, 1912, the total consolidated debt was 3,734,354,038; on Jan. 1, 1913, 3,739,133,738 francs-219,959,632 francs share of the Netherlands debt at 22 per cent, and 3,519,174,106 francs loans at 3 per cent. The greater part of the debt was raised for public works, and the interest is more than covered by the revenue from railways alone. ARMY. With the defeat of the Belgian army and the retreat from Antwerp the forces became disorganized temporarily, yet they gradually came together and the army was increased and reorganized so that it was able to take up a position of defense on the banks of the Yser and became a formidable part of the allied troops. This army was fully armed and equipped and so augmented by volunteers not only from the conquered Belgian provinces, but also by refugees who had gone to England and France at the outbreak of the war. Special training camps were formed in different parts of France where these men were fully trained before they were sent to the front. It was reported that the Belgian army was really increased and with the large number of volunteers enlisted at the training camps it was stated that at the end of the year 1915 this army was greater than ever previously, At the temporary capital of the kingdom at Havre, France, a law was passed providing for compulsory general service which exempted married men and included single men up to the age of 25. No such measure apparently was needed for enlistment was general among the available Belgians. Adequate arms and equipment were provided for this Belgian army, especially for those in the trenches, so that as a fighting force it was in far better shape than it had been to resist the invasion.

ble to a chamber of representatives and appointed by the King. The legislative power is exercised conjointly by the King and a Parliament made up of two houses-a Senate and an elective Chamber of Representatives. The reigning sovereign during the German invasion was Albert, son of the late Prince Philippe of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born 1875. Prince Leopold (born 1901) is heir-apparent.

HISTORY

RESTORATION AND RELIEF WORK. The War Relief Commission sent to Belgium in November, 1914, by the Rockefeller Foundation, issued a notable report, Feb. 15, 1915, describing the condition of Belgium, and emphasizing the fact that the chief cause of misery was the sudden suspension of the nation's economic activities. "Essentially the problem is not one of repair, but of liberation. If the paralyzing restrictions imposed by the war were removed to-day, the country would rebound from its helpless inertia tomorrow, resume most of its normal occupations, and soon be able to feed, shelter, and clothe its own sufferers." One of the most serious prob lems, the report explained, was the destruction of live stock throughout the country, and the unwillingness of the peasants to keep horses and cattle because of the fear that the animals would be requisitioned by the German military authori ties. In February an organized effort was begun by the Central Committee for the Agricultural Restoration of Belgium and Northern France to collect seed, stock, etc., to repair the ravages of war. According to the Committee's statement the loss sustained by the rural districts of Belgium aggregated $280,000,000; of the total loss, the destruction of crops and stock represented more than half. The Belgian and French Ministers of Agriculture accepted proposals made by the Committee to undertake the distribution of gifts to the agricultural laborers of Belgium and France. The International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association in its world-wide conference at London, about the middle of February, suggested a comprehensive scheme, which received the official approval of the French and Belgian governments, for the rebuilding of the country after the conclusion of the war. unique proposal for the restoration of Belgium was that made by Mr. John Wanamaker, the wealthy American merchant; Mr. Wanamaker proposed that the United States should purchase Belgium from the German government, paying as high a price as $100,000,000,000 if necessary, in order that American philanthropy might conduct the work of restoring peace and prosperity to the desolate nation. Meanwhile an immense amount of practical relief work was actually being accomplished in Belgium, partly upon the initiative of the German administrative authorities, as will presently appear, and partly by the Commission for Relief in Belgium, which was generously supported by contributions from Belgium and from abroad. The Commission's report, published early in September, recorded the collection and disbursement of fifty million dollars. More than half of the money contributions were made by the Belgians themselves. About six million dollars had been contributed by the United States, in the form of

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money, clothes, and food. The German government, it may be noted in this connection, had promised safe conduct to American vessels laden with supplies for the relief of Belgium. The report of the Commission furthermore revealed the fact that in June, 1915, about 2,750,000 Belgians were destitute, and were being supplied with food and clothing in so far as the Commission's resources would permit. Unemploy ment and destitution were steadily increasing, and the prospects for the future were indeed gloomy. A report of the Rockefeller Foundation, published about the same time as the Relief Commission's report, showed that the expenditure of the Foundation for relief purposes in Belgium had amounted to $986,000, and that a number of Belgian scientists, formerly professors at Louvain, were receiving moderate stipends to allow them to continue their scientific work in England or America.

THE GERMAN ADMINISTRATION IN BELGIUM. Three features of the German administration in Belgium were specially worthy of note. In the first place, the German Governor-General, General von Bissing, was chiefly anxious to maintain order and discipline no easy task with a people whose hearts had recently been inflamed by their heroic struggle against the German invader, and whose detestation of "Prussian militarism" and bureaucracy had been raised to the pitch of passion. In consequence, General von Bissing deemed it necessary to employ harsh measures. Each community was held collectively responsible for any disturbance which might occur within its midst, and the fearful punishment which had been meted out to Belgian towns during the German invasion made "collective responsibility" no empty phrase. It is interesting to note that the submissiveness shown by the conquered Belgian population in 1915 was ascribed in German circles to the salutary effect of the stern measures of the preceding autumn, which had struck terror into the hearts of the people. In three separate paragraphs under this article will be found a discussion of the Treatment of Cardinal Mercier, the Case of Miss Cavell, and The Bryce Report, all of which have some bearing upon the disciplinary measures employed by the Germans in Belgium. A second noteworthy feature of the German administration was the endeavor of the German officials generally to coöperate with the various philanthropic organizations for the relief of the distressed population. In March General von Bissing announced that he was doing all in his power to strengthen local self-government and social welfare institutions in Belgium, that the return of immigrants was being encouraged, and that the German Red Cross had been asked to take preventive action against prostitution, infant mortality, and contagious diseases within the country. In April a credit bank was instituted to make cash advances on the requisitions which were being given by the Germans in payment for large quantities of goods then being seized. The refusal of the Belgian Red Cross in the middle of April to enter into a systematic plan for relieving the distress in Belgium brought about the dissolution of the society by decree of the Governor-General, and the appointment of a German officer to supervise the work. In July announcement was made that the American Commission for Relief in

Belgium had concluded an agreement with General von Bissing, whereby all of the wheat and rye crops in the zone occupied by the Germans should be reserved for the needs of the civilian population. Only West Flanders and a part of East Flanders, for obvious reasons, were excluded from this agreement. Ordinarily the crops would be sufficient to supply the country for two months, but with economical use, and with the bountiful supply of seed by the American Commission, Belgium's stock of cereals was expected to last much longer. In the middle of October the Chief of the German Army Staff announced that arrangements had been made to provision 2,000,000 civilians in East and West Flanders. The authorities requisitioned a portion of the cereal and root crops in those provinces, leaving the remainder to be distributed by the American Commission. The Commission undertook to import wheat to supply the deficit, and also to supply bacon, rice, lard, and fodder, for the use of the Belgian civilian population. The third feature of the German administration in Belgium was the attempt to put the occupation of Belgium upon a self-supporting if not a profitable basis. The levy of a heavy tax on absentee (emigrant) landlords, announced in January, and the imposition of a monthly war contribution of 40,000,000 francs, announced November 13, to become effective in December, were calculated to help defray the actual cost of administration. Even more important were the measures taken to make Belgium's industrial resources valuable to Germany. From the formal statement issued March 5, by the Belgian legation at London, the fact appears that more than $3,000,000 worth of Belgian machinery had been seized by the Germans. In order that there might be a plentiful supply of labor for the construction of arsenals, the operation of mines, and the repair of railroads, General von Bissing issued a decree imposing penalties on Belgians who refused without good reason to resume work in consonance with their former professional training. Any attempt, whether by means of threats, persuasion, or coercion, to hinder persons working for the German authorities, would be severely punished. Destitution itself, if due to stubborn refusal to work, would be treated as a misdemeanor. Furthermore, in order to promote the sale of German manufactures in Belgium, penalties were promulgated against any Belgian who should conspire with others to boycott German goods, or to threaten, blacklist, boycott, or insult users of German goods. For such offenses the penalties might be, at the maximum, two years' imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 marks.

THE GERMAN CHANCELLOR'S STATEMENT. The result of more than a year of German administration in Belgium was strikingly summarized, from the German point of view, by Imperial Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, in his historic Reichstag speech of Dec. 9, 1915:

"In Belgium the economic situation is almost normal. Industry and commerce have been reinvigorated, monetary matters have been regulated, the post office, railways, shipping, and roads are working, the production of coal is rapidly increasing, and last quarter reached nearly three and a half millions of tons. employment is being checked, but it is impossible to bring the labor market to a normal state

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because Great Britain is strangling Belgian industry by closing its oversea export. A general obligation to visit schools for instruction in the Flemish language has been introduced." THE TREATMENT OF CARDINAL MERCIER. Of the several instances of arbitrary conduct on the part of German officials in Belgium, in consequence of which bitter reproaches were directed against the German government by the press of allied and neutral countries, the case of Cardinal Mercier attracted the most general attention, partly because of his conspicuous position, as Cardinal Archbishop of Malines, and Roman Catholic Primate of Belgium, partly because of the high esteem in which he was held by the Belgian people. A trip through Belgium late in the preceding year so deeply touched the heart of the prelate that, in January, 1915, he was moved to write a pastoral letter on the condition of Belgium. The letter was appointed to be read in all the churches of his diocese on Sunday, January 3. Having learned of the cardinal's action, and being informed that the letter was anti-German in tone, the German authorities attempted by force to seize as many as possible of the copies which had been sent to the parish priests. At the same time Cardinal Mercier was made practically a prisoner within the confines of Malines by the authorities, who kept several officers near him at all times. Early reports stated that the cardinal was in actual confinement, but this the German authorities denied, stating at the time that he had merely been requested by the Governor of Malines not to take an attitude which might incite the people to disturb public order. On January 12 King Albert of Belgium sent a personal protestation to Rome asking that the Vatican take action against the incarceration of the cardinal. In a letter which appeared in the newspapers on January 19, the cardinal protested against the action of the authorities, and stated that he was being prevented from traveling freely, notwithstanding the German communication "that the Cardinal Archbishop of Malines has been in no wise hindered in the exercise of his episcopal duties." In answer to a remonstrance from the Holy See the German authorities in the middle of February announced the withdrawal of restrictions upon the cardinal's freedom of communication with the bishops and other clergy of Belgium. The pastoral letter of January 3, which had caused all the trouble, contained the following statement which the Germans considered provocative:

"I have gone through most of the places in my diocese which have been wasted. What I have seen of the ruins and the ashes passes anything that, in spite of my most acute fears, I could ever have imagined. Churches, schools, charitable institutions, hospitals, convents, to a considerable number, are unfit for use or are in ruins. Whole villages have almost disappeared. . . . God will Belgium, my brothers, we cannot doubt it. Let us say, rather, He is saving her. Is there a single patriot who does not feel that glory has come to Belgium? Which of us would have the courage to tear out the last page of our history? Which of us can look without pride on the splendor of the glory that our murdered country has won?"

save

THE BRYCE REPORT. Full details of the

shocking outrages alleged to have been perpetrated by the German army during the invasion of Belgium were published in the Bryce Report, May 12, 1915, as the result of a careful investigation conducted by a commission of eminent British jurists under the chairmanship of Viscount Bryce. From the evidence accumulated the commission reached the conclusion that (1) the German troops in many parts of Belgium deliberately organized systematic massacres of the civilian population, and in other places committed isolated murders and outrages; (2) that outrages upon women, the killing of children, and the butchery of innocent civilians attended the progress of the German invasion quite generally; (3) that the destruction of private property and the burning of private houses was not only permitted by the German officers, but in some cases actually ordered by them, careful provision having been made in advance for the incendiarism which the German troops practiced as part of their campaign of terrorism; (4) that the German troops by interposing civilians between themselves and the enemy's fire, by killing wounded and prisoners, and by abusing the Red Cross, had flagrantly violated the rules and usages of civilized warfare. As a counterblast to the Bryce Report, the German government published a memorandum specifying in detail, with the names of witnesses, the acts of the civilian population--such as throwing boiling water, "sniping off" soldiers, maiming wounded Germans, and murdering officers-which led to the punishment of Belgian towns, including Louvain. Furthermore, the German apologists were supplied with additional material for the justification of Germany by the discovery of secret Belgian diplomatic documents, which, it was claimed, proved that Belgium's fate was deserved, inasmuch as her neutrality had already been surrendered to England.

THE CASE OF EDITH CAVELL. In October, 1915, a new "German atrocity" in Belgium aroused the British public to furious indignation and, to a lesser degree, the public of neutral countries. According to the account of the affair sent by the American minister, Brand Whitlock, to London, and published by the British government, Miss Edith Cavell, an Englishwoman who had been in charge of a training school in Brussels, was accused of utilizing her position as a nurse to assist in the escape of British, Belgian, and French soldiers from Belgium. She had been arrested August 5th; October 11th she was condemned to be executed by a firing squad of German soldiers. Disliking to kill a woman in cold blood, the firing squad had aimed so inaccurately that Miss Cavell was not killed, but only wounded by a single bullet. Thereupon-and this was the circumstance which particularly infuriated the British press -the German officer in charge of the firing squad drew his revolver, put it up to the woman's ear, and deliberately pulled the trigger. In England Miss Cavell was henceforth regarded as a martyr, a sort of British Joan of Arc. A memorial service at Westminster Abbey, attended by Mr. Asquith as well as by representatives of the royal family, was thronged by a vast multitude anxious to do her honor. Plans were made to erect a statue to her memory.

BELGIAN ROYAL FAMILY. Early in April,