was allowed them. For if already all those that do good,' he says, 'merit in every way our praise and protection, we hold it proper with especial grace to defend those against all injury, whose science enlightens the world, and teaches subjects to obey God, and us as his servants.""

After the establishment, in the twelfth century, of the three universities already spoken of, similar institutions, modeled particularly after the University of Paris, sprang up in the various countries of Europe. The German universities of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were founded in the following order: Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1388; Erfurt, 1392; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 1419; Greifswald, 1456; Freiburg, 1457; Ingolstadt, 1472; Tübingen, 1477; and Mayence, 1477. Thus, it will be seen that they were established in quick succession—an unmistakable proof of the growing scientific interest of the age.

(L.) SUMMARY.

Here our review of education before the Reformation must end. Education did not have a complete and beautiful development. It was unworthily enslaved to other interests, and both in theory and practice it showed its servile condition. Yet the long, dark period of the middle ages was not without blessings for mankind. It was the winter that gathers strength for the blossoming of spring and the fruit-bearing of summer. The foundations of future progress were laid. The Germanic nations were placed in possession of Christianity and civilization. One-sided tendencies worked themselves out, and have since remained for the instruction of our race.

The work of this period was largely negative. If the middle ages have not taught us what to do in education, they have at least showed us a good deal to avoid. And, as the history of our race proves, this negative work has always to be done before humanity makes any signal progress. Heathenism had to exhaust its intellectual strength before the world was ready to accept Christianity.

IV.

EDUCATION FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.

THE Reformation of the sixteenth century is the greatest event in modern history. Its vast influence upon human development is surpassed only by the advent of Christ. It marks the close of a long, dark night, and dates a new era in human progress.

It was not, however, an isolated fact. There were many concurring circumstances which prepared the way for it, and gave it power in the world. The revival of classical learning, which had its central point in the downfall of Constantinople in 1453, exerted a favorable influence. It opened the literary treasures of Greece and Rome, provided a new culture for the mind, awakened dissatisfaction with the scholastic teaching of the Church, and tended to emancipate thought from subjection to ecclesiastical authority. The invention of gunpowder brought about an important and wholesome change in the organization of society. It destroyed the influence and power of the knightly order, elevated the producing class, and thus became a mighty leveler. Before this invention a single knight, clad in a full suit of armor, and mounted upon a powerful charger, was

a match for a whole company of foot-soldiers. The strength of armies was measured by the number of knights. But after the invention of gunpowder, in the fourteenth century, which made the humblest footman with a musket more than a match for the proudest knight, chivalry necessarily declined. The discovery of America, and of a sea-passage to the East Indies, exerted an elevating influence by enlarging the circle of knowledge. Correct views of the earth supplanted the Ptolemaic system. The commercial activities of the world began to move in new directions, and to assume enlarged proportions. But the most important of all was the invention of printing, about the middle of the fifteenth century. At once supplanting the tedious and costly method of copying books by hand, it multiplied the sources of knowledge, and brought them within reach. of a larger circle of readers. Each of these circumstances was a lever to lift the world up to a higher plane. The Reformation broke the fetters yet holding it, and started it forward in a new course of intellectual, moral, and religious development.

1. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING AND THE HUMANISTS.

The revival of learning was so intimately related to the Reformation, and to the educational advancement dating from that time, that it calls for consideration in some detail. It had its origin in Italy. The three great Italian writers of the fourteenth century-Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, all of whom had made a more or > less profound study of the ancient classics-may be regarded as its pioneers. The widely extended scientific

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spirit, which has already been noticed at some length, prepared the way for its rapid spread. The first Greek to introduce the literary treasures of his country into Italy was Manuel Chrysoloras, who received from the city of Florence, in 1396, an appointment as teacher. This was the humble beginning to be followed by great results. When Constantinople was captured by the Turks, in 1453, many Greek scholars took refuge in Italy. The times were propitious for them. Noble and wealthy patronage was not lacking, and under its fostering care they became for a time the teachers of Europe. They succeeded in kindling a remarkable enthusiasm for antiquity. Manuscripts were collected, translations were made, academies were established, and libraries were founded. Several of the popes became generous patrons of ancient learning; Nicholas V. founded the celebrated Vatican Library, and collected for it a great number of Greek and Latin manuscripts; and under Leo X. Rome became a center of ancient learning. Eager scholars from England, France, and Germany, sat at the feet of Italian masters, in order afterward to bear beyond the Alps the precious seed of the new culture.

The revival of letters produced different results in different countries. Everywhere it contributed to the emancipation of the human mind, but in Italy it tended strongly to paganize its adherents. Ardor for antiquity became at last intoxication. Infidelity prevailed in the highest ranks of the Church; Christianity was despised as a superstition; immorality abounded in the most shameful forms. The heathenism of Athens was revived in Christian Rome. The remark that Leo X. is said to have made to Cardinal Bembo well accords with

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