ters. Representation of the comedies of Plautus and Terence in the four higher classes. All the plays of these authors to be acted.

Second Class.-The pupils explained, under the direction of the teacher, the Greek orators and poets. Peculiarities of oratorical and poetical language. Remarkable passages copied. Dialectic and rhetoric studied in connection with orations of Cicero and Demosthenes. Exercises in style. Oratorical composition and declamation. Memorizing and recitation of the Epistle to the Romans. Representation of the comedies of Terence and Plautus, and some drama of Aristophanes, Euripides, and Sophocles.

First Class.-Dialectic and rhetoric continued. Virgil, Horace, Homer. Translation of Thucydides and Sallust. Weekly dramatic entertainments. All written composition to be artistic. Reading and explanation of Paul's epistles.

This course has the merit of being well fitted together,|| and of harmoniously tending to the desired end. It is carefully graded throughout, each class furnishing a definite preparation for the succeeding one. Yet it has obvious and serious defects. It is too narrow in its scope. An unjustifiable prominence is given to Latin and Greek, while many other important studies are wholly neglected. History, mathematics, natural science, and the mother-tongue are ignored. A great gap is left between the gymnasium and life—a gap that could not be filled even by the university. In aiming to reproduce Greece and Rome in the midst of modern Christian civilization, Sturm's scheme involves a vast anachronism.

"And what a strange mistake,” exclaims Paroz, “to

wish to confine the scientific culture of a nation in the forms of a foreign language! In order to succeed, it would have been necessary at the start to overcome the resistance of a young, vigorous, popular, national language. But such a result was neither possible nor desirable. The future belonged to the mother-tongue; and true modern culture, the culture suited to modern needs and to the genius of the people, was not found in the Latin gymnasia of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—it lay germinally in the religious work of the period; that is, in the translation of the Bible, in hymns, sermons, and catechisins, and in those poor popular schools in which the mother-tongue was spoken. We are astonished to-day that Sturm did not make the German language a branch of instruction, and that he even despised French and German, although he somewhere acknowledges that Luther and Philippe de Comines have written as well as the most celebrated of the ancients."

Sturm's influence extended to England, and thence to America. Says a recent English writer: "No one who is acquainted with the education given at our principal classical schools, Eton, Winchester, and Westmin-1 ster, forty years ago, can fail to see that their curriculum was framed in a great degree on Sturm's model. During our own generation the subjects of school-teaching have been largely multiplied, and we can afford to look down on the humanistic scheme as narrow and incomplete; but it had at least this merit, that it was a wellconsidered plan, harmonious in its arrangement, with its parts well fitting into one another. The master of each class knew precisely what the boys confided to him were

expected to learn. When they proceeded to the uni versity, the preliminary instruction which they took with them had been well defined."

(B.) THE UNIVERSITIES.

The universities were affected most, perhaps, by the theological influences of the period. These institutions were established in considerable numbers for the promulgation of particular types of theology. The universities established between 1550 and 1700, with their ecclesiastical relations, are as follows: Strasburg, Lutheran, 1621; Geneva, Reformed, 1558; Jena, Lutheran, 1557; Dillingen, Catholic, 1554; Helmstädt, Lutheran, 1576; Altorf, Lutheran, 1575; Herborn, Reformed, 1654; Grätz, Catholic, 1586; Paderborn, Catholic, 1592; Giesɛen, Lutheran, 1607; Rinteln, Lutheran, 1619; Salzburg, Catholic, 1622; Münster, Catholic, 1631; Osnabrück, Catholic, 1632; Bamberg, Catholic, 1648; Duisburg, Reformed, 1655; Kiel, Lutheran, 1665; Innspruck, Catholic, 1670; Halle, Lutheran, 1694. Of these, Helmstädt, Altorf, Rinteln, and Duisburg were subsequently dissolved.

No important changes were made in the organization of the universities. The course of instruction, which continued in the hands of the four faculties of philosophy, theology, law, and medicine, remained narrow. History and the modern tongues were entirely neglected; mathematics received but little attention; physics, astronomy, and natural history-the only natural sciences recognized—were taught out of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pliny; and medicine out of Hippocrates and Galen. Even Greek was accorded only an inferior position. In

the universities, as in the gymnasia, Latin was the chief subject of study. "Thus was the circle of studies," says Raumer, "at the schools as at the universities extremely restricted, as compared with the range of subjects in our time. It is clear, as I have repeatedly remarked, that all the time and strength of the youth were forcibly concentrated upon the learning and exercising of Latin. Grammar was studied for years in order to learn to speak and write Latin correctly; dialectic, in order to use it logically; and rhetoric, in order to handle it oratorically. Facility was sought by means of debate, declamation, and representations of Terence. The classics were read in order to collect words and phrases from them for speaking and writing, without particular concern for the thought."

The state of morals at the universities of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was very low. Idleness, drunkenness, disorder, and licentiousness prevailed in an unparalleled degree. The practice of hazing was universal, and new students were subjected to shocking indignities. The following graphic description, contained in a rescript of Duke Albrecht of Saxony to the University of Jena in 1624, would apply equally well to any other university of the time: "Customs before unheard of," he says, "inexcusable, unreasonable, and wholly barbarian, have come into existence. When any person, either of high or low rank, goes to any of our universities for the sake of pursuing his studies, he is called by the insulting names of pennal, fox, tape-worm, and the like, and treated as such; and insulted, abused, derided, and hooted at, until, against his will, and to the great injury and damage of himself and his parents, he

has prepared, given, and paid for a stately and expensive entertainment. And at this there happen, without any fear of God or man, innumerable disorders and excesses, blasphemies, breaking up of stoves, doors, and windows, throwing about of books and drinking-vessels, looseness of words and actions, and in eating and drinking, dangerous wounds, and other ill deeds; shames, scandals, and all manner of vicious and godless actions, even sometimes extending to murder or fatal injuries. And these doings are frequently not confined to one such feast, but are continued for days together at meals, at lectures, privately and publicly, even in the public streets, by all manner of misdemeanors in sitting, standing, or going, such as outrageous howls, breaking into houses and windows, and the like; so that by such immoral, wild, and vicious courses, not only do our universities perceptibly lose in good reputation, but many parents in distant places either determine not to send their children at all to this university-founded with such great expense by our honored ancestors, now resting in peace with God, and thus far maintained by ourselves—or to take them away again."

The custom of hazing was broken up in Germany about 1660, after which time the moral condition of the universities showed a marked improvement.

(c.) THE JESUITS.

Within the Catholic Church education was promoted chiefly by the Jesuits. This order, established by Ignatius Loyola, found its special mission in combating the Reformation. As the most effective means of arresting the progress of Protestantism, it aimed at controlling