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who for the most part do not understand themselves. We must cultivate women, who are the educators of the human race, else the new generation can not accomplish its task." He regarded women as his natural allies in his educational reforms, and to his appeals they have responded nobly. It is chiefly through their agency that his reforms have been promoted in both America and Europe. Fortunate is the cause that enlists the hearty interest and support of women!

The leading ideas in Froebel's educational system have been summed up as follows:

"1. The task of education is to assist natural development toward its destined end. As the child's development begins with its first breath, so must its education also.

"2. As the beginning gives a bias to the whole afterdevelopment, so the early beginnings of education are of most importance.

"3. The spiritual and physical development do not go on separately in childhood, but the two are closely bound up with each other.

"4. Early education must deal directly with the physical development, and influence the spiritual development through the exercise of the senses.

"5. The right mode of procedure in the exercise of these organs is indicated by nature in the utterances of the child's instincts, and through these alone can a natural basis of education be found.

"6. The instincts of the child, as a being destined to become reasonable, express not only physical but also spiritual wants. Education has to satisfy both.

"7. The development of the limbs by means of

movement is the first that takes place, and therefore claims our first attention.

"8. Physical impressions are at the beginning of life the only possible medium for awakening the child's soul.. These impressions should, therefore, bè regulated as systematically as is the care of the body, and not be left to chance."

Froebel died June 21, 1852. "Like all self-educated persons," says a biographer, "he was deficient in logical clearness, especially in writing, when a flood of ideas overwhelmed him; as a practical teacher, he was wonderfully impressive and clear. Awkward in appearance, indifferent to the conventionalities of life, and always filled with one interest, one range of ideas and efforts, he nevertheless exerted on all genuine educators who came in contact with him, irrespective of creed, station in life, or party, an almost magical influence. Although a devout Christian and religionist, he was entirely unsectarian; although a revolutionary thinker in most respects, he kept free from all attempts at practical revolution; although a cosmopolitan and lover of mankind, he was an ardent national German; and, although in theory he was most uncritical, in speech incoherent and hardly intelligible, his system of methods for the devel opment of the mind is eminently practical, systematic, and effective."

(c.) CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION.

There can be no doubt that education is now receiving far more attention than at any period in the past, ⚫ and that it is rapidly becoming universal. Since the American and the French Revolution, the masses of the

people in all Christian lands have been rising in impor- · tance. Popular intelligence is everywhere reckoned an element of national power and wealth, and the stability of republics is recognized as resting upon the knowledge and virtue of the people. The worth of woman is appreciated now as never before. No longer held in the base subjection of heathen countries, and excluded from the blessings of culture, she now enjoys, in all enlightened nations, excellent facilities for education. Her sphere is growing larger; her education goes beyond a narrow circle of dainty accomplishments; and with cultivated mind she takes a place of wide influence in society, and stands by her husband as his friend, his counselor, and his equal.

No civilized nation now fails to make provision, to a greater or less degree, for the instruction of the people. Even the unprogressive nations of the Orient are affected by the Christian education of the West. China, with its strange conservatism, is relaxing its former rigor against foreign institutions. Many schools have been established by Christian missionaries, especially of the Catholic Church; and, besides a workshop at Shanghai, and a polytechnic school in the province of Futschien conducted by foreign teachers, a university on the European plan was opened at Peking in 1868 under imperial patronage. Japan has been thoroughly modernized in education. Since 1872 that country has had a comprehensive school system, including primary schools, academies, normal schools, colleges, and universities. These schools, modeled chiefly after those of America, are supplied with modern furniture and apparatus, and are conducted upon scientific methods. Both

sexes have the same educational advantages up to the normal school. The courses of instruction are substantially the same as in schools of corresponding grade in Europe and America, save that English and other modern languages take the place of Latin and Greek. India is gradually receiving at the hands of England an educational system extending from elementary schools to colleges and universities. Public instruction now forms a department of the government, and a network of schools is being extended by degrees over the whole country. Some institutions are entirely supported by the government, while others, established by local effort or missionary zeal, receive grants in aid. In the elementary schools, the vernacular is chiefly employed, but in the secondary schools English is taught and used in daily intercourse. Female education has but made a beginning. In 1882 the total number of educational institutions of all sorts in British India was 112,218, attended by an aggregate of 2,643,978 pupils, showing an average of one school to every twelve square miles, and ten pupils to every thousand of the population. In the same year the total expenditure upon education by the government was about $6,440,000. Persia and Egypt, though languishing under Mohammedan rule, have to some extent imported European educational ideas.

But it is in Europe and America that the tendencies toward universal education have manifested themselves most fully, and accomplished the greatest results. Though as a rule Catholic countries have lagged behind, every Christian nation now provides with tolerable completeness for popular instruction. Greece and Italy have adopted in the present century systems of education

more comprehensive and useful than were ever contemplated by Plato and Quintilian. Germany, France, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal—all have at present some system of popular education; and most of them have adopted the system of compulsory attendance. During the past two decades England has shown great interest in popular education, and granted annually, in connection with a system of thorough inspection, ever-increasing subsidies to public schools. The educational systems of several of these countries will be considered more in detail.

(D.) GERMANY.

In no country has education received more attention, or produced, upon the whole, better results, than in Germany. Though in subjection to the social conditions belonging to a monarchical form of government, the German system embodies many points of excellence. In the science and history of education, the Germans are in the lead. The principles of Pestalozzi, which found able advocates in all parts of Germany, have permeated the primary schools, and given a great impulse to the professional training of teachers. Teaching is recognized as a profession; and no one, who has not received special training and passed a satisfactory examination, is allowed to teach in either public or private schools. As a result of this rigorous system, Germany has a body of teachers admirably qualified for their work.

The existing interest in primary education in Germany dates from the opening of the present century. Humiliated by the wars of Napoleon, Germany felt the necessity of developing greater internal strength. Fred

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