erick William III. addressed the following wise words to the German people: "We have indeed lost in territory, and fallen in external power and splendor, but we must see to it that we gain in internal power and splendor; and hence it is my earnest desire that the greatest attention be given to the instruction of the people." He was nobly seconded by able ministers, and the pres ent educational system, in its essential features, was devised.

Education is an interest wholly in the hands of the government. The general supervision of educational affairs is intrusted to a Minister of Public Instruction, who is assisted by school boards in the several provinces, regencies, and districts of the state. The course of study, the text-books used, the methods of instruction, the examination and appointment of teachers, the supervision of the schools—everything is directly or indirectly under the control of the general government. The schoolbuildings, many of which were constructed for other purposes during the last century, are generally massive structures of stone or brick. Defective in ventilation and light, and furnished only with plain and often uncomfortable desks, these buildings are not models of school-architecture. The schools are well supplied with maps, charts, globes, and other apparatus, which the teacher employs judiciously in giving instruction.

The educational system of Germany embraces, under various names, three grades of schools, all of which have received a high degree of development. The primary schools (Volksschulen), which are brought within reach of the whole population, give instruction in religion (catechism and Bible history), reading, writing, arith

metic, geography, natural history, singing, and gymnastics. The instruction, which is imparted in accordance with recent scientific methods, is very thorough. All children are required to enter school at seven years of age, and to continue their attendance till fourteen, at which time they are usually confirmed as members of the state Church. Through the successful enforcement of the compulsory system, the percentage of illiteracy is lower in Germany than in any other country of Europe. In 1872 the number of illiterates in the army was 4.6 per cent, and in the navy 2.3 per cent, while the corresponding numbers in France were 23 and 14 per cent. In Saxony, Thuringia, Baden, and some other portions of Germany, the illiterates among the recruits do not amount to one per cent; and out of six thousand recruits in Würtemberg there was only one that could not read. Primary instruction is much better among the Protestants than among the Catholics.

Secondary instruction is given in the gymnasia and the real-schools. The gymnasia, which give great prominence to Latin and Greek, are designed to prepare students for the university and the professions. The real-schools, which attach importance to the mothertongue, mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages, aim to fit their students for the ordinary business callings of life. As the gymnasia are humanistic and the real-schools practical, they have been the occasion of a warm conflict between educators of these two tendencies. The conflict is still going on; but meanwhile, in accordance with the practical spirit of the age, the real-schools have been constantly increasing in number and popularity. The studies in these two classes of

schools vary somewhat in different parts of Germany; but the courses pursued at present in the Prussian gymnasia and real-schools are fairly representative:

the real-schools extends through nine years Pupils enter at nine years of age, and complete the course at eighteen or nineteen; but many give up their studies at fourteen. As a rule, they do not room or board in the school-buildings; and, when coming from a distance, they are placed under the care of some trustworthy resident of the town or city, who watches over their studies and conduct out of school hours. The. secondary schools charge a tuition fee, which varies from about five dollars to twenty-seven dollars, according to class.

The normal schools of Germany are excellent. The higher education of woman is left chiefly to private institutions. Though the courses of study vary considerably, the following curriculum of the Royal Augusta School for young ladies in Berlin will serve to indicate the general range of instruction. The prominence given to the mother-tongue is especially commendable:

The universities, both for comprehensiveness and thoroughness of instruction, stand pre-eminent. Their large number is due mainly to the former subdivisions of Germany into separate states, each of which was ambitious to maintain an institution for superior instruc tion. Many of the universities possess a considerable endowment; but most of them receive large subsidies from the state. The studies are ranged under the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the latter comprising, besides philosophy proper, natural science, mathematics, political economy, history, geography, literature, and philology. A rector, elected annually by the professors, is charged with the administration of the affairs of the university. German students can not become full members without having completed the course of a gymnasium or real-school. The universities founded during the present century are as follows: Berlin, 1810; Munich, 1826; Breslau, 1811; Bonn, 1818; and Strasburg, 1872. The University of Berlin is the largest, with a faculty of two hundred and fifteen professors, and a yearly attendance of about five thousand students.

(E.) FRANCE.

The interest in popular education in France dates from the Revolution of 1789. The leaders of that movement were inspired with democratic ideas, and at the same time they believed that popular intelligence was necessary for the perpetuity of the republic. Hence, the Convention in 1793 not only ordered the establishment of elementary schools throughout France, but also made