VALUES OF PARTICULAR SUBJECTS IN CURRICULUM. Shorn of all contributory factors, each school subject may be judged, with reference to its educational value, as follows: 2 First. A subject may possess auxiliary value, i.e., value in helping to get the full value from other school subjects. Thus, geometry possesses auxiliary value for the study of physics; history auxiliary value for the study of literature; and a foreign language auxiliary value for the study of the vernacular. Second. A subject may possess practical or utilitarian value. By this expression is here meant the knowledge or power that can be utilized outside the schoolroom, immediately or later on, in gaining a livelihood or in adding to one's material advantages. Thus, hygiene, physics, English, manual training, and civics possess intrinsically varying degrees of practical values, depending on the person pursuing them, the purpose with which they are pursued, and the content and method employed. Third. All subjects possess, in varying degrees, intellectual value, or the quality of developing the power to think. The training only is what is meant here by intellectual value, whether that training be specific or general; this classification does not take account of the value of the subject as knowledge. For example, the intellectual value of a subject is found in the extent to which it develops the following powers: (a) Observation, or the ability to take note of (c) Perception, or the ability to interpret a (d) Analysis, or the ability to separate an entirety into its constituent parts. (e) Comparison, or the ability to bring different elements into common view. In the very nature of the case the several groups of values are not delimited by clear and distinct boundaries. Elements, therefore, that are assigned to certain groupings by the present writer might, with equal propriety, be classified differently by another writer. * Doubtless, for the most part, mental disciplines are specific, not general. Nevertheless, insofar as the mental processes involved are similar and the data acted upon possess common elements, the specific disciplines yield general psychological value. Hence any subject of study that develops mental power in varied ways or to a notable degree in limited ways must receive large consideration in planning the education of any individual. The caution must, however, be urged that the intel (f) Discrimination, or the ability to select essentials. (g) Imagination, or the ability to construct mental pictures. (h) Conception, or the ability to formulate general notions. (i) Association, or the ability to relate mental contents and processes. (j) Judgment, or the ability to formulate conclusions respecting two or more percepts or concepts. (k) Reason, or the ability to formulate a series of connected judgments. (1) Memory, or the ability to recall mental contents and processes once they have passed out of consciousness. (m) Expression in oral, written, and graphic forms. (n) Resourcefulness, or the power to meet a situation and to adapt means to ends. Fourth. A subject may possess political and civic value. Such a subject fosters an interest in the institutions of the state and municipality, and inspires a feeling of loyalty to them. It also possesses the power of developing such qualities as civic pride, public spirit, civic consciousness, patriotism, respect for law, and political responsiveness. The ideal sought through such studies is good citizenship. Fifth. A subject may possess social values, because it develops the power to make social adjustments with ease and readiness, and thus removes a source of social friction. Such an ideal does not ignore the value of individuality; it seeks rather the adjustment of individual traits to social ends. It includes the development of such personal qualities as toleration, sympathy, consideration for the rights and opinions of others, courtesy, graciousness, tactfulness, fairness, and co-operation. On the negative side the ideal may be expressed by the motto, "Live and let live;" on the positive side, by the Biblical conception of neighborliness. Sixth. A subject may possess ethical value, that is, social value viewed from the standpoint of morality. This means the power to stimulate and develop those personal qualities which collectively con lectual value of a subject of study depends largely upon the methods employed in teaching it. While literature, for example, may be made to appeal to the imagination, it may also be made to appeal to the reason, and hence may exercise both those powers. Literature can give little direct help in training the power of observation of material things. Yet it can be taught so as to stimulate the observation of nature and of the physical traits of individuals, and hence can be used as a means of cultivating the power of observation. What is true of literature is true of all other subjects. In estimating the intellectual values of the various subjects, therefore, equally good teaching must be presupposed for all, and the value computed upon the intrinsic worth or qualities of the subject matter alone. Seventh. A subject may possess religious value. By this is meant the power to develop a spirit of reverence, devotion, and submissiveness to the Deity; faith, trust, and confidence in some phase of organized religion; and an acceptance of religious obligations, with a readiness to co-operate in religious undertakings and ceremonies. Eighth. A subject may possess æsthetic value. This concept includes the idea of a power to stimulate a love for the beautiful in its various forms material, intellectual, and spiritual—and a personal conformity to the accepted laws of good taste. The æsthetic appeal is chiefly to the emotional side of human nature, and involves an appreciation of the elements of material, color, arrangement, and proportion. Ninth. A subject may possess conventional value, that is, the power to develop the graces, manners, and conventions that give standing in polite society. Conventional value is also realized in the prestige which the pursuit of certain subjects gives to the individual pursuing them. The value of such training lies in the fact that certain forms and standards of conduct and certain stock information are traditionally and conventionally expected of educated persons. Tenth. A subject may possess cultural value (in the narrow meaning of the term). By this is meant the quality that directly and immediately satisfies, that finds its end chiefly, if not solely, in the pursuit of the subject for its own sake, or that prepares for the enjoyment of leisure. Such a value considers only the egoistic happiness or enjoyment of the individual acquiring it; seeks truth for truth's sake; or stops at the mere sentimental or intellectual interest aroused.* No one subject in the program of studies possesses notable educational value in all ten of the categories mentioned, or possesses the same degree of value in 4 The word "culture" is to-day a very equivocal term. In a broad sense it is nearly synonymous with what in this chapter has been styled "intellectual" training; but in its very broadest connotation it means the training and refinement of mind, morals and tastes. If used in this sense, all civilized men possess some culture; they differ from each other in the scope and degree of culture possessed. Fairly considered, therefore, he who has incorporated into his character and life the ten educational values above mentioned, and has realized them to the fullest degree, has attained to a high state of culture or education. each of the several categories to which it belongs. Neither should each of the ten categories be accorded equal importance in evaluating the significance and worth of a subject. Even a small degree of social value, for example, may possibly much more than counterbalance a high degree of conventional value. Nor is it possible to assign exact numerical grades of value to any subject. With interest present (that is, aptitude and responsiveness in the pupils) it is possible, as already acknowledged, that any subject may yield values of worthy kinds and amounts; with interest lacking, it is doubtful if any subject yields true values for youths destined to become free men and women. The one alleged value that is sometimes extolled as characterizing the doing of uninteresting school work is the acquirement of habits of performing disagreeable tasks in general. Granted that the fundamental element of character in any human being is sensitiveness to the demands of justice and duty and responsiveness to these calls, nevertheless, even here the end may not give sanction to the means employed to secure it. It is possible and altogether probable, that these two elements of characthat, in securing them, other important forces may ter may in some cases be purchased too dearly, and mental, emotional and volitional traits may be probe undeveloped, while per contra certain undesirable duced. Individuality and personality are too precious human attributes to be jeopardized by employing processes that tend seriously to stultify. There is no great virtue in blind unintelligible habit. An education that is liberal tends to arouse and inspire, not unduly to repress and inhibit. Moreover, success in life cannot be measured solely by objective appearances. There must be a fair balance between independent thinking and unquestioned acceptance of what others think. The limits of this paper do not permit of such a detailed analysis of each sub-division of history here. The scheme is presented merely to stimulate others (if they see fit) to make more careful studies of the particular problems, when leisure permits. It is important, however, to inquire here, What is the specific purpose of history work in our high schools to-day? What are the positive aims which the various courses in history collectively seek to realize for our pupils? The answer, to my mind, is primarily this, namely: To help young people to understand the origin, development, present organization and significance of existing social, i.e., human, institutions, agencies, beliefs, prejudices, customs and aspirations, to the end that they may better adjust themselves to these forms and conditions, and hence secure for themselves individually greater contentment and happiness, and for the world at large continued progress and prosperity. The primary aim of historical study is therefore (stated concisely) to help bring about social adjustments. Undoubtedly this single aim could readily be resolved into a number of constituent aims, among which may be mentioned: (a) taste for historical reading; (b) interest in governmental affairs; (c) patriotism; (d) good citizenship; (e) toleration for the beliefs, aspirations and modes of expression of others; (f) sympathy for the distressed; and (g) a background for interpreting social and personal actions. Without, therefore, seeking completeness in the analysis, let us attempt to evaluate the subject of history as a high school branch of study, and then to deduce a few working administrative principles. VALUES OF HISTORY COURSES. ་་ The values claimed for the courses in history in the high school include nearly all the values listed under the ten categories mentioned, and in each category the estimate of worth is usually placed as high," or at least as 'moderate." Thus, history is said to possess large auxiliary value; various kinds of intellectual value; a very high degree of social, political, ethical and religious value; superior worth as a means to æsthetic inspiration; and notable importance in giving practical, conventional and cultural training. Considered with reference to auxiliary values, history is an important agent in unlocking the secrets of other departments of knowledge; it gives an interpretative basis for the pursuit of all branches of study, and is intimately correlated with English literature, the fine arts, ancient and modern foreign languages, and the sciences. For an adequate understanding of civil government and many current topics and events it is in the highest degree essential. The twentieth century is distinctively historical in its mode of thought. In every department of school work, therefore, an historical approach is made. Historical facts give the background upon which to present in higher colors the special material of the particular course. No thoroughly satisfactory course in mathematics, for example, ignores entirely the history of mathematics, and the history of mathematics is again inseparably connected with general history. Hence the auxiliary value of history is high. On the directly practical or utilitarian side, the customary courses in history, as usually organized and presented in the high school, have little value, except for pupils who are destined for careers as teachers of history, writers, newspaper reporters, public speakers, lawyers, jurists and diplomats. Nevertheless, they yield a fund of knowledge that tends to give a clearer insight into many daily tasks, and, if presented with reference to specific occupations, possesses no inconsiderable practical worth for all. The courses in industrial and commercial history in particular yield goodly amounts of such values. So, also, do courses in the history of agriculture, the history of art and music, and the history of other special interests in so far as these courses are pursued by students qualified well to pursue them. As a means of intellectual training history yields a peculiar kind of discipline—a discipline in dealing with human affairs and institutions. It deals preeminently with sequences in human affairs, and hence calls for the continued exercise of the powers of analysis respecting the causes and effects of feelings and motives, of institutions and of conduct. It therefore trains the faculty of reasoning with reference to human affairs, and develops the tendency in pupils to follow the current of thought and action wherever it may lead. It likewise demands the employment of the powers of constructive imagination, comparison and discriminating. The student of history is forced to visualize past events, compare and contrast these with other events, deduce conclusions respecting principles of procedure, and foreshadow possible and probable conditions respecting the future. It demands that the student shall put himself back into the past; collect facts and combine them into their essential and definite relations; give attention to similarities and differences in motives, agents, means, processes, events, places, dates and results; form judgments respecting the probability of the fact alleged, the efficiency of the means employed to adjust means to ends, the righteousness of the act, and the motives and ideals that dominated it, and then, finally, deduce valid generalizations from the facts presented. The study of history, therefore, tends to produce the judicial mind-the mind that impartially considers all the significant facts relating to a problem, scrutinizes them from various points of view, accords due validity to each group of elements, and forms its judgment in the light of the evidence. In short, since history deals with recurring problems in human life, the study of history develops those intellectual powers which best serve the pupil in solving contemporary social problems. On the social, ethical and political sides the values derivable from the study of history are incomparable in variety and strength. Accounts of the deeds of men and women who have struggled unselfishly and nobly have a charm for youth, fill it with aspirations to emulate the lives of those who have wrought benefits for their fellow-men, and inculcate faith and courage in striving to realize such aspirations. Again, history shows, as no other subject of study does, that man is a gregarious animal and cannot successfully and happily live alone; it reveals the interdependence of men, and shows that while in union there is strength, in disunion there is weakness -possibly death. It extends the pupil's horizon, deepens his sympathies for his fellow-men, and tends to make him conscious of his social inheritance, privileges and responsibilities. Hence it should inspire loyalty to the state and its institutions, and devotion to civic and political duties. It trains the individual to form a better estimate of the motives and actions of his associates, enables him to foreshadow his own probable attitudes and conduct under given conditions, and teaches him to shape his course of procedure in such a manner as to avoid unnecessary friction and strife. Moreover, it tends to give a broad, tolerant view of national traits and character, and to break down provincialism, to reveal the relations and interdependence of one community with another and one nation with another nation, and hence tends to make international intercourse simpler, easier and more permanent. The study of history likewise aids in interpreting many allusions in current conversation and writings; it makes the experiences of travel intelligible; it creates an interest in the resources, tools and processes of one's vocation, and fosters pride and contentment with labor; and it explains racial, economic, religious and social cleavages and prejudices and makes for a truer democracy of feeling and action. In short, the study of hisIn short, the study of history makes individuals sensible of their social and political obligations, and qualified and willing to work in harmony with their fellow-men. Religiously the study of history tends to give support to the faith that there is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will." It reveals the fact that a ceaseless evolution is going on in the realm of intellectual and spiritual things as well as among material organisms, and that ideas alone are constant while forms and processes change. It teaches us, therefore, to see something of the intangible forces that over-ride personal preferences and hinder the application of principles sincerely held. Aesthetically considered, history stirs to an appreciation of the beauties of men's handwork in sculpture, architecture, painting, musical and literary form, industry and commerce; it reveals the beauties of human genius in adapting institutions and governmental forms and processes to desired ends; and it tends to develop the habit of personal response to the demands of order, beauty and proportion. As a subject valuable for the sake of pure culture, no branch of study takes higher rank than history. The student who has developed an interest in his on torical literature has inexhaustible resources which he may draw for employment during leisure hours and for personal gratification in study and research; while he who has developed the art of writing historical accounts has a limitless field in which to work. In brief, history is, par excellence, one of the most broadly social subjects in the program of studies. It deals with human motives and affairs; with human interests and conduct; and it ennobles human character, thought and intercourse. THESE VALUES NOT Now SECURED. If the educational values of history are as varied in kind and as extensive in degree as the above paragraphs affirm, then assuredly none would deny that the subject deserves a place in the curriculum of every high school boy and girl. Unfortunately, however, as the secondary courses are organized and arranged at present, it is very doubtful, even with superior teaching, that fully satisfactory results are being secured—at least, for many types of mind and for youths looking forward to vocational occupations immediately on completing the high school. Particularly unsatisfactory is the character of the work in history as it is found very commonly in our small high schools, situated in rural or quasi-rural communities. Indeed, the dulling effect of the history work here is not infrequently almost criminal in its influences. Pupils are brought into classes under false pretenses. They enter with high expectations of receiving stimulating information and help, and drop out all along the way disheartened, discouraged, dissatisfied. And what is the cause? It is that the courses have been arranged to fit a logical scheme of administration, and not strictly speaking, the psychological condition of pupils. It is that the work has been for too long a time and to too large a degree planned and imposed by men brilliant, it may be, as historical scholars, but woefully ignorant so far as boy and girl nature is concerned; knowing books intimately and thoroughly, but knowing the practical life of the practical people of the practical twentieth century almost not at all; sensitive to the slightest misconception and misstatement of fact respecting the governmental and social ideals and practices of historical peoples, but unfamiliar and even indifferent to the similar interests that engage the common man and common woman in America today; fluent with expositions concerning the scientific principles that should guide in the gathering and recording of historical data, but contemptuous of history as an art; extolling in exaggerated terms the virtue of knowing one's subject, but cynical, almost insulting, in his attitude toward a pedagogy of his tory. I repeat, therefore, that, to my mind, the work of history in our public high schools-particularly in the high schools in our smaller towns and for the youths of no great literary ability-has fallen upon hard lines, primarily because the choice of material, the arrangement of material, the relative emphasis placed on the material had been determined largely 13:200 by the college ideal and by men who have not, as a rule, had (and by their very education and experience cannot have) an adequate conception of the pedagogical, the social and the practical problems involved in the teaching of history in our democratic schools of to-day. In the scholar's love of thoroughness, completeness and mastery of a limited field of knowledge, historical details have been heaped upon details until the courses in the secondary schools have, in form at least, assumed the appearance of a university course. The typical college specialist who writes history for secondary schools, and the typical college specialist who instills into his students the ideal that to teach is but to secure the mastery of those details, is to-day the evil genius of the secondary school men. Not that the special training of the university professor can be wholly disregarded, but that he shall add to his historical training a training in the theory and practice of teaching history in secondary schools. Failing in this, the demand is insistent that he turn over the organization of secondary work to the secondary school men themselves. Needless to say, in specific terms, I think, that I personally am very much dissatisfied with much of the work in history in our secondary schools. It is altogether too abstract, remote and pallid for our age and country. If the premise I advanced some time ago be accepted as valid, namely, that the fundamental purpose of historical study in our secondary schools is to help young people to understand more clearly the origin, development, present organization and significance of existing social (i.e., human) institutions, agencies, beliefs, prejudices, customs and aspirations, then it needs must follow that a greater emphasis should be placed than heretofore on the study of the movements and conditions of the past which still are making their influences felt here in America to-day, and especially here in Indiana, and in the particular local community in Indiana in which the pupil is located. Moreover, I am in thorough accord with Dr. G. Stanley Hall's affirmation that the typical adolescent youth is so constituted physically, mentally, and temperamentally that it is unpedagogical, if not essentially immoral, for a teacher to seek to force him to master, during the secondary school period, the minute details of any subject or topic. What the pupil is really interested in and what he is really capable of doing and doing well is to pass somewhat rapidly over a wide range of topics assimilating the grosser elements in each and leaving the refinements of detail to be sought out at a later time. Yokum has expressed this thought clearly when he says: "A fallacious seeking after thoroughness in the sense of exhaustive detail . . . has defeated its own purpose. Even the crudest sort of pedagogical analysis reveals the utter weakness of a high school course that teaches... Greek and Roman history, or English and American history in petty detail, in place of that general sequence of historical periods and epochs which assures the only unique contribution made by history to mental training.” All this means that the high school courses in history (as in any other subject) should include a large variety of topics treated somewhat generally, i.e., not exhaustively, and should be vitally connected with the life interests of America to-day, and interpretable through the customary daily personal experiences of the pupils to whom the work is presented. Still farther, inasmuch as it is a well known fact that a large percentage of our pupils in the public schools will not even complete the eighth grade, and that of those who enter the high school a large percentage will not complete the four years' work, it seems perfectly obvious that the courses in history, both in the seventh and eighth grades and in the first and second year of the high school, ought to be something different either in content or emphasis, or both, from what is commonly found in these grades. ACTUAL CONDITION OF HISTORY COURSES. This thought then raises the whole question of the actual organization of the courses in history in the school. Why are they organized as they are, and what objections can be raised against the order of their presentation? The serious teaching of history in elementary and secondary schools is, speaking generally, a relatively recent innovation. Indeed, it was not until after the famous report of the Committee of Ten in 1893 that any widespread studied consideration was given the subject either by public schoolmen or by educational theorists. A superficial course in the history of the United States had found a place in the upper grades of the elementary schools as early as 1840, or before; but it consisted chiefly of military history and sketches of the presidential administrations About the same period, a differentiated course in ancient history was incorporated into the classical curriculum of some of the secondary schools. Occasionally, too, brief courses in general history and English history were offered to the non-classical student. Still later, a so-called review course in American history appeared in the high school, and in time grew to be the advanced course (not review course) which we know to-day. With the gradual transformation of the public high school into a college preparatory school (an ideal that was not contemplated at its founding in 1821), with the prestige and dominance of the classical curriculum (course) within this school, with the formulation and passive acceptance of the absurd theory that whatever training constitutes the best preparation for college likewise constitutes the best preparation for all other careers in life, and finally with the renewed emphasis of the somewhat converse collegiate notion that general courses of any kind are superficial and inferior, and that intensified courses are alone worth while. Ancient history first crowded out general history from the various curricula, and then was expanded into two courses. So it has happened that our history courses in the schools have come to consist of a formal (largely memoriter) study of United States history (with a little consideration of government) in the seventh |