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A New Method of Teaching History

BY G. S. GREENE, WEST PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL FOR BOYS.

In the past three years, the old and traditional

d method of daily recitations in the teaching of history has aroused increasing and ever recurrent doubts and misgivings within me. Many of the suggestions in educational journals from the pens of experienced history teachers were very wholesome and aided appreciably in producing better results. Nevertheless, the conviction remained with me that the desired results were not forthcoming and, despite my best ma efforts and a mind open to new methods, results would not be secured.

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In the final analysis, moreover, of these helpful suggestions I was compelled to admit that we were but putting new patches on old wine skins.

True, the syllabi, now used in many secondary schools as well as colleges as guides to the student in the devious paths and bypaths of history, have been a great improvement over the old and inherently defective method. But still it remains a question in my mind whether the average secondary student uses a syllabus judiciously and wisely or, on the other hand and what is more probable, whether he does not use it quite superficially and hence ineffectively. Unless the boy or girl put the flesh and blood and sinew into the frame, it will have little or no meaning for him, let alone interest.

According to this new method two of the three periods that the school curriculum assigns to history may be called "preparation" periods.

At the beginning of one of these periods ten to fifteen minutes may be used at the teacher's discretion in rapid-fire questioning to bring out the salient features of the previous day's lesson and connecting the old material with the new or in judiciously reading from the sources. The remaining minutes of the period are left to the student to fill in the logical and comprehensive outline which is on the board before him. The teacher then goes around the class giving his attention to the individual student, clearing up points of obscurity and offering timely suggestions here and there.

Of course, it is imperative that the teacher thus inspecting the loose-leaf note books in the class room work, impress upon the student the necessity of analyzing the thought first and then putting it into his own words. Some of this preparation should, however, be done at home or in the study period.

In the third period of the week the written work of the student is handed in and the whole period is given up to recitation on the assignments of the two previous preparation periods.

As to the method employed here much is left to the teacher's discretion. Following the outline too closely does not seem advisable to me. The charts and maps aid materially in making this an “illumination day as it has been aptly termed.

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Moreover, it has been my own experience that carefully chosen quotations from other authors form interesting sidelights to the study. These can be garnered from one's whole field of experience and can be easily memorized or conveniently retained on small cards.

Allow the student in this way to fill in this outline in the class room, and figuratively speaking, clothe the thought in the garment of his own language and you will discover that even the mediocre student displays a most commendable pride in his own handiwork. Further, give him a teacher of sympathy and resourcefulness, the student, especially a boy, will give the best that he has within him, joyously and eagerly. The history hour, instead of being monotonous to the pupil and teacher, will be one of glorious anticipation.

It would be well, perhaps, to touch upon the advantages of the new method from the viewpoint of psychology. We all know how quickly the adult untrained mind makes its generalizations which often are not only untrue, but positively dangerous. So, too, is the immature and growing mind of the high school boy prone to grave errors of judgment in his generalizations. Partial concepts are, alas, too often the result. He will picture feudal Europe with castles where entrancingly beautiful and eminently virtuous ladies are always attended by chivalrous knights, always brave and courteous and true-hearted. In the later days of his maturity he may or may not be disillusionized. In either case it is doing him a great injustice to allow him to overemphasize this phase of life in the Middle Ages and fail to see that a very clear understanding of the history of the church is absolutely essential to an understanding of the Middle Ages or to ignore some other development of like importance. With the new method such a mistake would not be likely to occur. With it his sense of historical proportion is developed-a-very-muchto-be-desired result. In short, his generalizations are not only safe and sane, but assume their proper places in his historical perspective.

From the standpoint of the teacher who has become imbued with a deep sense of his responsibility, the new method is of incalculable advantage. Why? might be asked. The answer is simple. The teacher experiences a pleasurable sense of satisfaction in seeing that the student has received what he believes to be the best possible presentation of the subject matter. The zealous teacher, well-meaning though he may be in his fine enthusiasm, too often wanders off into digressions of particular interest to himself as a specialist, but quite as often usurping time which rightly belongs to other phases of the subject of like or even greater importance. To such errors the new method is a talisman. We are saved from ourselves.

Perhaps a criticism may be made that the study

of history in this way may lose its cultural value, that the atmosphere is lost because of restrictions upon the teacher who thus cannot display his erudition to the class. These objections depend, of course, upon the teacher and his personality. If he feels the pleasurable thrill of the artist in conducting a recitation so as to secure the best possible results, again if he enjoys using that skill that comes from experience and if he is resourceful, sympathetic and alert, then these objections will vanish into thin air.

Then, too, by a kindly suggestion here or a word of explanation there, he will be able to help the individual boy far more than he could in the old daily recitation method. Indeed, the reason for the existence of many good private schools is the individual attention which a boy receives in small classes. Now by the new method the teacher who feels that his trust is sacred can be of great aid to a boy who would

otherwise hopelessly flounder around and in the end be ship-wrecked.

In a class studying the renaissance during a preparation period, plates of great paintings, photographs of magnificent Gothic cathedrals contrasted with those of the renaissance, may be passed around the class for inspection without interfering with the progress of the work in hand. In like manner, in Roman, Greek or Egyptian history, post card photographs of the temples of the ancients, their gods, their heroes s and their amphitheatres, forms of dress, coins and the like, may be viewed by the class.

In general, this new method lends to the subject of history a dignity which rightfully belongs to it, but which unfortunately it often lacks in the secondary schools. It creates a highly commendable selfactivity in the student. Measured by results, it seems to me the best of methods.1

Word Study in History Teaching

BY P. G. LAUTZ, A.M., OF THE HIGH SCHOOL, PETOSKY, MICH.

Each of the several subjects in the high school curriculum has a phraseology more or less its own. This includes common as well as proper nouns, with their derivatives. In the sciences, we come in almost daily contact with the words, spontaneous, potential, mechanical, momentum, conservation, metric system, and gravitation; in mathematics, with the words hypothetical, vertical, rectangular, ratio, simultaneous, horizontal, diagonal, axiomatic, acute, altitude, and radius; in English, with the words romance, classical, essay, style, narrative, discourse, exposition, climax, catastrophe, and characteristics. What an enriched

vocabulary the student should have at the end of his course, if he has become the complete master of even a part of the words most used in the study of the different subjects! By this, I do not mean that he should merely show a sign of intelligence when he sees or hears the words in question, but that he should make them his own-be able to use them correctly in written or spoken language. To do this, he must be able to spell, pronounce, and define them accurately. Of course, the factor of memory must not be overlooked; but what greater aid to memory is there, than a thorough understanding of the thing to be remembered?

In no vocabulary peculiar to the various high school subjects, are the words of more practical value in later life than those found in the study of history and civics. Take for example words as politics, constitution, arbitration, initiative, referendum, shortballot, economics, democracy, contraband, law, federal, militarism, judicial, executive, legislative, Caesarism, tariff, demagogue, league, municipal, chivalry, industrial, institution, social, diplomacy, monopoly, and revolution; they must be a part of every person's vocabulary if he is to converse intelligently on the common topics of the day. The value

in later life of this feature of history study cannot
be disputed. Nor must we neglect the importance
of this subject in the recitation, the examination, and
preparation of lessons.
preparation of lessons. If the pupil cannot spell,
pronounce, and define the common and proper nouns
found in the daily assignments, how can he make a
thorough preparation, and intelligent recitation, or
write a presentable examination paper? Does the
student do these three things? I do not mean per-
fectly, of course, but does he do them reasonably
well? Recall the many instances where students have
risen to recite, become confused, and then sat down
in embarrassment, saying 'that they did know the
answer, but could not express it. What was the
trouble? Recall the blunders in pronunciation, the
incoherent answers, the misspelled 'words of the ex-
amination papers. I have found by observation, that
the inability to understand the words of the text leads
to many failures in recitation, which we usually
credit to a lack of concentration in study. These
defects cannot be attributed entirely to the causes
under discussion, but sufficient responsibility 'can be
laid to this source to make it worth while to discuss
possible methods of improvement.

There seem to be four places where opportunity for improvement in spelling, in pronunciation, and in definition present themselves: first, in the introduction to the course; secondly, in the assignment of the lessons; thirdly, in the apparatus at hand to help the pupil in his preparation of the lesson; and fourthly, in the recitation.

1. Introducing the Course.

At the beginning of the course, the teacher should lay stress upon the importance of the study of new words in connection with the proper preparation and

1 From "The Teacher " (Philadelphia), May, 1915.

mi recitation of the lessons in history. The pupil should

be made to see that an enlarged vocabulary will be Brig acquired by taking the course, and that this in turn, pwill help him in his general reading, in his understed standing of public addresses, in his other studies, and in improving his conversational powers. This must be repeated at appropriate intervals during the course, when specific examples of the value of words can be cited."Follow-ups" bring results in history teaching as well as in the business world.

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ESS.C Time should be taken in the first few lessons to indicate the purpose and value of foot-notes, the proper use and importance of the pronouncing index, ongs 1 the dictionary, and other apparatus helpful in histhetorical word study. As the course progresses, the dteacher can find occasion to impress some of the fundamental rules of spelling, of pronunciation, and of definition upon the pupil. Suggestions regarding certain aids to memory might not be entirely out of place in a history course. Time so spent-seemingly lost-brings rich returns in expediting the preparation and recitation of lessons.

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2. The Assignment.

There are two methods of assigning a history lesson. In the first, its limits are set in topics from the text-book, with an oral explanation of what should be emphasized. The teacher should also have the pupil underscore all the new words and expressions. In the second method of assignment, a written outline or a list of questions is given to the pupil. In this case, it is very easy to list the words that he will be expected to spell, pronounce, and define correctly.

3. The Apparatus for Preparation.

Next comes the preparation of the words assigned, which we shall discuss largely from the standpoint of the apparatus that should be at hand to help the pupil. His greatest source of help should be found in his text-book, which is too often lacking in that help. It will be taken by consent that the author should convey his thoughts in words not too difficult for the average high school pupil. Yet we find the too abundant use of difficult words to be one of the chronic faults of high school texts, especially those in ancient history. There should be a complete pronouncing index with the difficult words spelled out with diacritic marks. Professor Harding, in his new medieval and modern history, has taken a step that will be very helpful to the pupil, by explaining the pronunciation of each new word as it occurs in the text. In this day of efficiency and time-saving devices, why should we force the pupil to turn to the index each time a new word confronts him, or what is worse, force him to consult the dictionary? For in some of our history texts, he will look in vain for help in the index. Then, too, the average high school pupil is inert and careless, prone to slip over strange and difficult words, trusting to the context for the meaning and to guess work for the pronunciation. For these same reasons, I think a good text-book should have numerous footnotes explaining new terms

where they are not properly explained in the text. Some one will now say the pupil does not read footnotes. Don't you think he will be more likely to read a footnote than to consult a dictionary, which is probably some distance from his desk? And then, too, he will probably get more from a single footnote definition, framed in simple language, than from a five-minute consultation of the dictionary, trying to distinguish between the noun and verb forms of a word in question. Finally, when he finds the proper form, he must read four or five definitions of the word, depending upon its use. Can we wonder that he sometimes leaves the dictionary knowing less than before he consulted it? The dictionary is rather foreboding and complex to the high school pupil, never so satisfactory as a concise definition or explanation by the author, fitted to the sense in which the word is used. After consulting the dictionary, how many high school freshmen could distinguish between slavery and serfdom, morals and religion, feudalism and chivalry, empire and kingdom, federation and confederation, or state and government?

Writers of text-books will render the teachers a service when they learn to define in their own textbooks, and possibly give the derivation, of such words as papal bull, desmesne land, heraldry, heresy, convocation, ecclesiastical, canon, coup d'etat, classical, noncombatants, society, Christian era, civilization, attainder, and letters of marque and reprisal.

There is also a too frequent use of proper names without an accompanying explanation sufficient to enable the pupils to understand them and see their connection with the narrative. If left to his own initiative, the average student will skip over these references with results only too obvious.

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I anticipate the teacher who will contend that one of the objects of a course on history is to teach the pupil the use of reference books. Admitting this, we must not let it interfere with teaching him history. It will be taken as axiomatic, I think, that the text should be as nearly perfect as possible, within itself. Professor Cheyney has covered this point in the preface to his Short History of England: I have omitted altogether statements and allusions the significance of which could not be explained in the book; and have tried on the other hand, to give a clear and adequate explanation of all matters that have been taken up. It is true that this practice may seem to disregard the teacher, who would presumably be competent to explain those things to which the author alludes and to interpret what he merely states. On the other hand, the student must usually deal with the text-book when he is alone, and may be glad to have everything clear at first; while the well qualified teacher will find a more useful and interesting function in testing comprehension, providing further illustrations, drawing out international relations, and adding personal details to the necessarily general statements of the text-book.”

In possibly a majority of the high schools of this country, there is either such a lack of library facilities or such a lack of inclination on the part of the

teacher to encourage the use of outside references, that it is but fair to the student to give him within its covers, everything that will be essential to the understanding of the text.

Most teachers find opportunity to encourage the use of reference books by amplifying the text through the assignment of topics and questions for special investigation.

4. The Recitation.

The Grammar School History

Debating Class

BY WILBUR F. GORDY, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT. Years ago when I taught history in the highest grade of a grammar school, in this city, I found it of great advantage, at the very beginning of the year, to organize the class into a debating club, with a constitution and by-laws, a president, and other necessary officers. While I wished the pupils to get some understanding of what a constitution means and some slight notions of parliamentary rules, the main purpose was to stimulate an interest in

of history. Any device or method which breaks up mechanical routine and changes the pupil from a passive to an active, alert attitude, is worth much if there is to be any vital contact with the historic past.

We did not have formal debates oftener than once a month, and each of these occupied only a single recitation period. The subjects for discussion, for most of the debates, were historical, although no historical subject was discussed until it had been carefully studied in connection with the regular history lessons. Before any debate took place, a leader was appointed for both the affirmative and the negative side, and the other members of the class were permitted to choose the side they preferred. An executive committee, in consultation with the teacher, appointed, from the members of the class, two leaders, the presiding officer, and three judges. Although the teacher was present, he tried to remain in the background, for his aim was to give such an impulse to the work that the discussion would be general and all would feel that they must strive to make the debate successful. While everything was simply done by the children, yet no debater could speak before addressing the chair and receiving due recognition.

Recitation upon these words can take place at the beginning of the hour or may be brought up as they history and intelligent and thoughtful work in the study occur in the lesson. The first method will bring about greater emphasis on this phase of the work and make pupils feel more responsible for it, while the latter is seemingly more logical. The method of the recitation can be varied by sending pupils to the board to spell and write out definitions of the words, by having them write them on paper to be handed in or exchanged and graded, or by oral recitation. Writing a new word on the board and having the class pronounce it in unison will be found helpful. Repeated drills on some difficult words like hieroglyphics, Peloponnesus, institution, common law, economics, ecclesiastical and episcopacy will be found necessary before they are mastered. The pupils should be encouraged to define new terms in their own words and use them in their recitation. Mistakes in spelling, in pronunciation, and in use of words should never be allowed to slip by unchallenged. Close markings and reductions on examination papers along this line will emphasize its importance and tend to make the pupil more careful. To arouse interest, I have found it an excellent plan to make out a list of twenty-five to fifty words used in the course and hand copies to each pupil. The next day we have a spelling and definition match; I find that it serves as an excellent means of review and never fails to arouse interest.

Although this paper emphasizes the value of word study in history, it must not be concluded that the writer would reduce history to a mere study of words. However, I do believe it is a vital matter and a phase of history teaching much neglected by the younger teacher especially. A close insistence upon the correct spelling, pronunciation, and definition, of new and difficult words will undoubtedly hasten the preparation and recitation of the lessons and lead to more accurate and interesting discussions.

"The Use of a Reference Library" is the title of a reprint of Chapter 7 of John P. Slater's "Freshman Rhetoric," published by D. C. Heath & Co. The chapter deals with the general reference works, with bibliographical aids, with systems of cataloguing, indexes to periodicals, special bibliographies, and assignments for practice work in the library.

For this formal debating the class had received much preparation in the informal discussions which were an important part of the daily recitations. Each pupil was expected and required to bring into every recitation & written question. At first many of the questions were so framed that they could be answered by yes or no. The. teacher, however, by showing that such questions were not good because they encouraged guessing and therefore did not lead to any thinking, soon found the pupils asking questions which called for thoughtful answers and required thoughtful preparation. A good original question puts the student in a very different mental attitude from what he is in when he is merely trying to absorb the facts stated in a book. Such absorption, to be sure, demands active effort; but after all, the facts may be learned without much if any thought as to their meaning in connection with other facts with which they stand related, especially as causes or results. To ask thoughtful questions is to study in a real sense, for to study is to think, to grasp the significance of facts in their bearing upon other facts, and to get at the value of the facts as they illuminate the life of the past in its vital bearing upon the life of the present and, most important of all, upon the life of the learner himself.

It goes without saying that many of these questions were childish, as was much of the discussion. These, however, were only the outward results. The vital, inner results upon the intellectual and moral life of the children themselves were the real measure of the value of this method of historical study. From that point of view the method was highly productive.

It was neither practicable nor in fact desirable to have

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all these questions or even a part of them answered in every recitation. But they were always handed in and the teacher picked out the best ones to be used in the class at the following recitation. In review lessons the 2D, CO entire period was sometimes devoted to discussing these questions. At such times the attention was marked. The class was keenly responsive, the interest often intense, and the mental effort of a virile quality. The pupils learned the all-important fact that most historical questions are capable of more than one interpretation, that truth is many-sided, and that it is not wise to reach a conclusion without weighing the essential facts that have a bearing upon such conclusion. To learn to weigh facts with discrimination and to develop a judicial and tolerant spirit are two invaluable results of the study of history.

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it should be remembered that while such results are being achieved the pupils are acquiring not only the true historic temper and spirit but also learning how to study history with a view to getting at its vital truths.

In carrying out this plan of work, when the pupils began the study of the slavery question the boys were requested to play the part of South Carolina slaveholders and the girls that of New England anti-slavery people. In discussing the tariff question as it was before the country about 1828-32, the boys were required to write letters to the New England manufacturers explaining why they desired free trade, and the girls stated in letters to the South Carolina slaveholders why they favored a high protective tariff. The writing of such letters called for imagination and intelligent reasoning. Moreover, it helped the pupils to see clearly the two conflicting points of view on the important national problem of the protective system.

This discussion touched upon the sectional differences brought about by the use of free labor in the North and rez slave labor in the South. It was agreed that in all the discussion of the slavery question the teacher should give no aid to either side. The boys representing the slaveowners and the girls the anti-slavery people of the North were to get their own facts in books which they read Ed under the direction of the teacher. And the debating did not develop very much until each side had done considerable reading. The result, for many of the class certainly was a willingness and desire, under the stimulus of a keen interest in the subject, to read as much as their time permitted.

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All this work, the class knew, was leading up to the final and most important debate of the year. This was a real event in the history of the class. The debate was public. Parents and friends, especially graduates of the school,-were present, and men and women of prominence in the community acted as judges. The question was this: "Resolved, that slavery was a social, moral, industrial and political evil to the South," and the side that did the best debating was declared the winner.

Now it so happened that in the course of time the grandson of Harriet Beecher Stowe, who was then living in Hartford, entered the class. His teacher was somewhat curious to learn what might be this boy's attitude and what the attitude of his friends toward his impersonating

slaveholder and representing, for the time being, the rich planter's point of view toward slaveholding and the system of slavery in the South. As a matter of fact, the boy was not only warmly interested but developed so much ability as a debater that the boys of his class chose him as their leader for the public debate referred to above. This debating experience was most interesting to the teacher and most profitable to the boys and girls in his

class.

Reports from the Historical Field

NOTES.

The National Security League (31 Pine Street, New York City) will be glad to send, free of charge, to any school, teacher or scholar, interesting material for debates, essays, orations, etc., relating to the need of our country for an adequate military and naval defense.

"The Immigrants in America Review," of New York, announced last July prizes of $250 and of $100 for the best papers upon the topic, "What America Means and How to Americanize the Immigrant." The competition was designed to encourage the study of the problems of the new immigrant in connection with the celebration of Independence Day.

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Civic Education for Immigrants" is the title of a new series of circulars to be issued by the United States Bureau of Education. The first one deals with "Public Citizenship Receptions to New Americans," and gives accounts of such receptions in Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Cleveland and Baltimore.

The Arthur H. Clark Co., of Cleveland, O., have issued over 150 special lists of new and second-hand books which they have in stock. Their lists run from Aeronautics to Zoology, and touch between these extremes Americana, Autograph Letters, Church History, Clock-making, Government Publications, Methodism, Precious Stones, Revolutionary War and Oscar Wilde.

Teaching," the publication of the State Normal School at Emporia, Kan., devotes the number for July to the subject of vacation activities, including such material as vacation drama, story-telling, playgrounds, school excursions, handwork and vacation activities in Kansas towns.

Prof. Clarence W. Alvord has published in Volume 1, No. 1, of the Minnesota History Bulletin, a paper entitled, "The Relation of the State to Historical Work." The paper is a plea for stricter government supervision and care of historical material. The writer gives instances of the destruction of family and public archives and documents through carelessness of the owner or custodians. He urges not only State-supported care of archives, but also State-supported historical work of a high character.

Figures compiled by the United States Bureau of Education show that the total sale of text-books for use in public, elementary and high schools amounted in 1913 to $14,261,768, an annual expenditure of each child in the public school of 78 3/10 cents. As the total expenditure of each child for all school purposes is approximately $38.31, the amount expended for text-books is only about 2 per cent. of the total.

The National Foreign Trade Council of New York City is investigating preparedness of American young men for

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