topics which were uppermost in men's minds. In the earliest period there are the narratives of explorers, the contemporary accounts of settlers, and then more comprehensive descriptions of the American colonies, either by occasional sojourners, or by leaders such as Smith, Winthrop, Bradford or Hubbard.

In the colonies during the seventeenth century, as in old England at the same time, there was a great mass of religious literature, sometimes in the form of occasional sermons, sometimes polemical pamphlets, like those of Cotton, Williams and Penn, and occasionally attempts to show on a large scale the hand of God in New England's history, such as Johnson's Wonder-working Providence" and Mather's

Magnalia Christi-Americana." At times the seriousminded writer tried to brighten his discourse with rhetorical or rhythmical decorations, as when Williams, writing of the Indian's customs, says:

"The Indians prize not English gold,
Nor English Indians' shell;

Each in his place will passe for ought,
What ere men buy or sell.

"English and Indians all passe hence,

To an eternall place,
Where shels nor finest gold's worth ought,
Where nought's worth ought but Grace.

"This Coyne the Indians know not of,
Who knowes how soone they may?
The English knowing prize it not,
But sling't like drosse away."

"If Birds that neither sow nor reape
Nor store up any food,
Constantly find to them and theirs

A maker kind and Good!

"If man provide eke for his Birds,
In Yard, in Coops, in Cage,

And each Bird spends in songs and Tunes
His little time and Age!

"What care will Man, what care will God,
For's wife and Children take?.
Millions of Birds and Worlds will God,
Sooner then His forsake." 24

Or like George Alsop in the conclusion to his "Character of the Province of Mary-Land:" 25

"'Tis said the Gods lower down the Chain above
That tyes both Prince and Subject up in Love;
And if this Fiction of the Gods be true,
Few, MARY-LAND, in this can boast but you:
Live ever blest, and let those Clouds that do
Eclipse most States, be alwayes Lights to you;
And dwelling so, you may for ever be
The only Emblem of Tranquility."

Stedman and Hutchinson, "Library of American Literature," II; Lodge, "Short History of English Colonies," the alternate chapters on colonial life in 1760; histories of American literature, of printing and of journalism.

24 Williams, "A Key Into the Language of America," in Narragansett Club Publications, I, pp. 118, 178.

25 Printed, London, 1666; reprinted in Md. Hist. Soc. Fund Publications, No. 16; also, in part, in Hart, "Contemporaries," I, p. 267-271.

Other subjects which may be treated under the intellectual life are: the colonial newspaper, political literature after 1750, the knowledge of science, 2 and the formation of libraries.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND CLASSES.27

Under this topic the aim is to give a concrete te picture of colonial society. Much can be done in class-work by assigning topics to be studied by individual students, such as professional life in New Eng- ire land, indentured servants in Maryland, slavery in 2 South Carolina, amusements and social pleasures in colonial times, traveling in 1750, 28 costumes in the colonies, 29 home-life, etc. With Lodge's "Short History of the English Colonies," if other works are not available, and a system of specific references and topics, a clear idea of colonial life can be obtained.

30

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND CONDITIONS. 31

Colonial agriculture, not of the plantation type, warrants attention, especially in rural schools. Pictures of implements and tools may be studied; actual objects may be brought to the school by pupils; or visits may be made to local museums, of which the best in the country for agricultural implements and home utensils is that of the Bucks County Historical Society at Doylestown, Pa. Not only implements, but also local barns, rotation of crops and methods of preparing food may be noted. The Swiss barn, developed in a mountainous country of Europe, has an entrance for cattle on the lower hillside to a first floor, and an entrance for wagons on the upper hillside to the second floor. It has been copied in many parts of the country, an artificial hill often being made in order to reach the second story.

The plantation system of the South presents many points of contrast to the Northern farm. It is different in its wide extent, in its dependence upon one or two staple crops, in the relatively large proportion of negro laborers, and the colonies or huts of

26 See lives of Franklin.

27 The alternate chapters in Lodge, "Short History of English Colonies," furnish a mass of information concerning social conditions about 1760. See also Hart, "Contemporaries," II, 224-243, 291-311; James, "Readings in American History," 106-125; Caldwell and Persinger, "Source History," 107-122; the various works of Alice Morse Earle; S. G. Fisher, "Men, Women and Manners in Colonial Times."

28 See A. M. Earle, "Stagecoach and Tavern Days;" also Dunbar, "A History of Travel in America," I.

economic needs, and are to be compared with the organization of labor in present-day industry. Slavery in South Carolina and Georgia may be compared with that in Virginia and in New England. The actual text of one of the slave codes would be interesting for class study, but so far as known, none of the source books has reprinted these laws.33 The picturesque features of runaway slaves and servants, with the measures adopted for their capture and punishment, are usually treated in the textbooks.34

For apprentices, indentured servants and redemptioners, who played such a large part in the labor of colonial times, the actual text of local indentures should be used. If these are not available, a typical one like the following may be studied and analyzed: "This Indenture Witnesseth That Peter Smith of his own free will Hath bound and put himself, and by these Presents Doth bind and put himself servant to the sd Edwin Vallette to serve him his Executors Administrators and Assigns from the day of the date hereof for and during the full term of Three years from thence next ensuing-During all which said term the said servant fully shall serve, and that honestly and obediently in All things, as a good and faithful servant ought to do. And the said Edwin Vallette his Executors Administrators and Assigns during the said term shall find and provide for the sd Servant sufficient Meat Drink Apparel Washing and Lodging and also to give him 18 weeks' Schooling-And at the expiration of his term the said Servant to have two complete Suits of Clothes, one whereof to be new-And for the true performance the Covenants and Agreements aforesaid the Said Parties bind themselves unto each other firmly by

at the very beginning of the course, since no textbook as yet has been written from the standpoint here given. Later in the course, when the text-book is used, it will be with no feeling of reverence and awe, and throughout the year it will be easy to transfer the classwork from text-book to collateral reading. Finally, the method proposed gives the student an idea of the continuity of history, and a knowledge of the sources of our institutions which he may not gain in any other work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

دو

No extended list of books on colonial history can be given here. The references printed above are mainly to easily accessible works which can be found in school or public libraries. The sum of ten dollars would purchase a working set of books on this period. For detailed references the teacher should use Andrews, Gambrill and Tall, "A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries (Longmans, Green); Channing, Hart and Turner, "Guide to the Study of American History" (Ginn & Co.); Root and Ames, "Syllabus of American Colonial History" (Longmans, Green); Hart, Manual of American History, Diplomacy and Government” (Harvard University); the bibliographical chapters in each volume of the American Nation Series (Harpers); the bibliographies in Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America" (Houghton, Mifflin); Larned, "Literature of American History," and the volumes entitled Writings on American History," published annually since 1905.

have interchangeably set their Hands and Seals here

Such a study of the colonial period as that outlined can readily be conducted in the opening days of the American history course. It is not essential that each topic be studied in great detail, nor is it desirable that this period be emphasized to the exclusion of equally important periods in the later history of the United States. It is suggested that the material here presented be used for not more than seven or ten class periods.

The method has a number of advantages over the routine study of discovery, exploration, settlement and colonial wars. In the first place it presents to the student a new group of facts which are likely to hold his attention and interest. Secondly, it shows him at the outset of the American history course that there is a great deal more in American history than he learned or could learn in the elementary schools. Thirdly, it furnishes an excellent opportunity to develop methods of work independent of the text-book

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The

of writer.

With regard to content and method, the course indas cludes a summary view of the lives, characters and services of about twenty of the leading factors in American history, who (in the words of the catalogue) "have contributed in a marked degree to the formation or development of the Union. Special attention is given to matters of character and personality, and an effort is made to arrive at a proper appreciation of each individual as an influence in American history and as a product of his environment." The subjects are arranged in a roughly chronological order, those of a dominantly national interest being grouped in the first term's work as History 11, American Statesmen." Such as Washington, Franklin, Webster, Lincoln, etc., etc., appear therein. History 12, Southern Leaders," continues the course during the second term. It includes no one whose life was not of import to American history as a whole, but names included are those of men dominantly Southern in their sympathies or sphere of work, e.g., Davis, Yancey, Cal

eric

names

PL houn, Benjamin, etc., etc. Where a good biography of the requisite length and price is available it is used, for example Thayer's "John Marshall" and Brown's "Andrew Jackson." Each student is expected to hand in on the day a man's career is taken up, an outline of his life based on such sketches as can be found in encyclopedias and biographical dictionaries. In addition, each student must do a considerable amount of collateral reading in books taken from a carefully selected list of biographies, memoirs, histories, etc. Reports on this reading are also required which sometimes take the form of definite topics, such as Calhoun as Secretary of War," Jackson's Invasions of Florida." At other times the student may be required to report on a certain work, for instance, Tarbell's "Lincoln;" again the student is occasionally permitted to select that phase of the subject's character or life which appeals most and treat that. These reports are frequently read and discussed in class, at other times merely turned in for the instructor's inspection. Where he deems it necessary he criticises and returns them. In any case, the student is responsible for a certain amount of work and study on each man's life. The class is required to recite on the events in the lives of the

men studied, the recitations being based on the textbooks (where used) and the parallel reading. The necessary "background" of the current history of the period involved (e.g., the war of 1812 in studying Clay and Jackson) is supplied by the instructor, though in no case does he consume as much as a whole period by lecturing. Rather, by comment and criticism, he fills in the hiatuses left by the students. This class meets thrice weekly, and from four to six periods are devoted to each subject.

Such a course supplies several needs in our freshman class. In the first place, a large number of students enter college at the beginning of the second term (February 1), and it is not desirable to have them enter the prescribed course, History 2 (Modern) without the background of History 1 (Medieval). Yet in many cases there is no freshman course which serves so well as an introduction to the use of the library as history. Since there is no pretense at continuous narrative in History 11-12, a student can enter at any time and keep abreast of the work. The preceding paragraph will show how the course compels the student to acquaint himself with the nature and use of the contents of the library. Next, we have students who are anxious to make history their major work, and come to college with that intention, but as History 1-2 is naturally the prerequisite to all the other courses, the freshman had no chance at any more history before his sophomore year until History 11-12 was instituted. As no prerequisite is demanded, it can be elected by freshmen, whether they enter in the fall or the spring. Of course we usually have a few in the course who are not freshmen, but the latter constitute the bulk of the class. This course also serves as a preparation for the more intensive study of American history offered in various courses. Having a speaking acquaintance with some of the leading “makers of the nation," with a slight background of the events and associates of their times, the students who take this course can enter more easily into the problems of a continuous course. Naturally we have some students who are not particularly interested in American history and would not ordinarily elect such a course as the one in the general history of the United States, but are glad of such an elective as History 11-12, and from it gain a slight insight into American history from the college standpoint which otherwise they would not obtain. A course in American history suitable for freshmen would be so much like what they have just had in the secondary school that it would fail to interest them, while one that was really worthy of a college course would be over their heads. History 11-12 seems to us the happy medium.

The students show much more interest in it than in the average freshmen history course, so as a result of our experience with it in one summer session and