"We hope our pageant has not proved a mystery— The time that's always called "The Middle Ages"- When every bad knight was a wicked raider, Farewell. What people are these days of ours, remember, We owe somewhat to old-time knights and sages, To minstrels, monks, to each and every member- Exeunt, solemn and slow, down center aisle, to strains of the Pilgrim's Chorus. This pageant, while designed primarily for instruction to the children, proved both instructive and absorbing to the rest of the school, the teachers and the parents of the children. For two performances we had only four real rehearsals. No child has a long part, every child in the class may partake, and other classes will be interested in helping out. Any part may be omitted, shortened or enlarged without disturbing the unity of the whole. This period of hisstory has become real, vital and full of meaning since we have given this pageant. The time required for it was about fifty minutes. "The Pedagogical Seminary" for September, 1915, contains a brief, but interesting study on Wandering Scholars" by Prof. M. W. Meyerhardt, of Clark University. The wandering scholar was an outgrowth of several phases of earlier medieval life-the wandering priests who dated as far back as the fifteenth century, the crusades, the wandering salesman and the traveling merchant, the relatively late foundation of the German universities which compelled the students of that land to travel far afield for their learning, and the highly specialized universities of the day. The author also considers their intellectual pursuits and their achievements, which were not inconsiderable. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HISTORICAL PAGEANTS AND SCHOOL DRAMATICS. Interest has been keen during the last few years in pictorial representation of the historic past. Many teachers have constructed tableaux, plays and pageants from local material, and although such exhibitions may be crude, they have the marked advantage of appealing to the students and adults of the school vicinity. A considerable literature respecting the subject has appeared, a brief bibliography of which is printed below. The list was prepared from material furnished by the United States Bureau of Education, from Sources of Information on Play and Recreation" (New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1915) and from other sources.-EDITOR. HISTORICAL PAGEANTS. American Historical Pageants. "Independent," 63: 16667, July 18, 1907. American Pageant Association Reports and Bulletins. Baker, G. P. What the Pageant Can Do for the Town. "Ladies' Home Journal," 31: 44, April, 1914. Bates, Esther W. Pageants and Pageantry. Boston, New York [etc.], Ginn & Company [1912], vii, 294 pp., 8°. Bibliography: pp. 281-87. Bland, Henry M. California May Fete. "Overland Monthly," 1, n. s. 52: 248-49, September, 1908. Illus. Chessire, J. K. C. Bethlehem Tableaux. New York, E. P. Dutton, 1913. 102 pp. Illus. Chubb, Pervical, and Associates. Festivals and Plays in Schools and Elsewhere. New York, Harper's, 1912. 403 pp. Illus. Clark, Lotta 4. Pageants and Local History. HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, V., 287. Coleman, A. I. du Pont. Oxford Pageant. "Bookman," 25: 349-51, June, 1907. Columbus Day. Fitchburg (Mass.) Normal School. Journal of Education," 74: 238-39, 244, September 7, 1911. Illus. Coburn, Frederick W. The Educational Pageant at Boston. "School Journal," 76: 52-53, October, 1908. Ilus. Corbin, A. M., and Fisher, E. V. Making of a Festival. Playground," 5: 355-60, January, 1912. Daval, Ralph. Handbook of American Pageantry. North Dye, Charity. The Historical Pageant in the Schools. "Atlantic Educational Journal," 6: 90, 207-10, November, 1910; February, 1911. Illus. The Dramatizing of History Material, "Indiana University Bulletin," 13: No. 10, p. 20, September, 1915. Foster, Paul Pinkerton. Reviving the Elizabethan Pageant. "World To-day," 15: 827-33, August, 1908. Illus. Farnsworth, Charles F. Festival Course at Dartmouth. 'Independent," 73: 371-74, August 15, 1912. Farwell, A. Pageant and Masque at St. Louis. A people's drama on a national scale. "American Review of Reviews," 50: 187-93, August, 1914. Illus. Festivals. "Atlantic Educational Journal." A monthly department conducted by Prof. P. W. Dykema, Baltimore, Md. Suggestions for the celebration of the Fourth of July by means of pageantry with an article and notes on the music by Arthur Farwell. New York, Division of Recreation of the Russell Sage Foundation, 1912. 56 pp. 8°. Pageant of Meriden, N. H. "American City," 10: 35561, April, 1914. Pageant of St. Johnsbury. "American City," 8: 481-87, May, 1913. Lincoln, Jeanette E. C. Festival Book. New York, A. S. Barnes & Co., 1912. 74 pp. Lord, Katherine. Pageant of the Evolution of Industry. Playground," 5: 407-410, March, 1912. 66 Mackay, Constance D'Arcy. Patriotic Plays and Pageants for Young People. New York, H. Holt & Company, 1912. viii, 223 pp. 8°. Mackaye, Percy. St. Louis-A Civic Masque. New York, Doubleday, Page, 1914. 99 pp. MacTavish, Newton. Our Three Hundredth Birthday. "Canadian Magazine," 31: 386-401, September, 1908. Illus. Maercklein, Burdette Crane. Historic Pageants and Spectacles enacted at Hartford during the great bridge fete. "New England Magazine," n. s. 39: 426-33, December, 1908. Illus. Merington, Marguerite. Festival Plays. New York, Duffield, 1913. 302 pp. Illus.' Holiday Plays. New York, Duffield, 1910. 164 pp. Mero, E. B. Value of Holidays in the Building of Citizenship. "American City," 9: 354-367, October, 1913. Needham, Mary Master. Folk Festivals: Their Growth and How to Give Them. New York, Huebsch, 1912. 244 pp. Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Historical Pageants. HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, 1: 167-68, April, 1910. Old Quebec's Tercentenary; Pictures. "World To-day," 15: 679-84, July, 1908. "Overland Illus. Pearson, Alvick A. Tournament of Roses. Schauffler, Robert H. Our American Holidays. New York, Spectator (pseud.). Scenes at Quebec. 89: 885-92, August 22, 1908. School Stevens, Thomas W., and Goodman, Kenneth S. Pageant 66 Dix, Beulah Marie. The Enemy. Boston, American School Peace League, 1915. 24 pp. 8°. A Pageant of Peace. Boston, American School Peace League, 1915. 20 pp. 8°. A Pageant of Peace. In National Education Association Bulletin, 3: 27-36, April, 1915. Stewart, Jane A. For Peace Day. "Journal of Education," 81: 411-12, April 15, 1915. Trask, Katrina. In the Vanguard. New York, the Macmillan Company, 1914. 148 pp. 12°. Craig, Anne Throop. The Development of a Dramatic Element in Education." Pedagogical Seminary," 15: 75-81, March, 1908. ་་ Eng Curtis, Eleanora W. Dramatic Instinct in Education. New York, Houghton, Mifflin, 1914. 245 pp. Dorey, J. Milnor. A School Course in Dramatics. lish Journal," 1: 425-30, September, 1912. Dramatization a Factor in School Education. "School and Home Education," 29: 13-22, September, 1909. Dryer, Mabel Elizabeth. The Making of a Play. "Elementary School Teacher," 8: 423-36, April, 1908. Finlay-Johnson, Harriet. The Dramatic Method of Teaching. London, J. Nisbet & Co. 256 pp. Пlus. 12°. Fleming, Martha. The Making of a Play. "Elementary School Teacher," 8: 15-23, September, 1907. Fry, Emma S. Educational Dramatics. New York, Moffat, Yard, 1913. 69 pp. Guide and Index to Plays, Festivals and Masques. Compiled by Association of Neighborhood Workers. New York, Harper's, 1913. 44 pp. Guild, Thacher H. Suggestions for the High School Play. English Journal," 2: 637-46, December, 1913. Reprinted from the April Bulletin of the Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Gives a list of some plays which have proved successful at the University of Illinois and the local schools. Hall, Jennie. Some Plans of Dramatic Representation in Primary Grades. Elementary School Teacher," 4: 566-78, April, 1904. 'Good Heniger, A. M. H. Drama's Value for Children. Housekeeping," 57: 636-647, November, 1913. Illus. Herr, Charlotte B. The Value of Dramatic Work in the Teaching of English. Journal of Education," 67; 95-97, January 23, 1908. 66 MacClintock, Porter Lander. Drama. In His Literature in the Elementary School. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1907. Pp. 212-28. Mackay, Clarence D'Arcy. Costumes and Scenery for Amateurs. New York, Henry Holt, 1915. How to Produce Children's Plays. New York, Henry Holt, 1915. 151 pp. Oglevay, Kate. Plays for Children. Drama League of America, 1915. 15 pp. O'Shea, Michael Vincent. The Dramatization of School Work. "Outlook," 89: 93-94, May, 1908. Payne, Bertha. Dramatic Play in the Kindergarten. The Drama in the School. 'Catholic Educational Review," 4: 364-71, October, 1912. Specimen School Dramas. "Catholic Educational Review," 4: 398-408, November, 1912. Spaulding, Alice Howard. The Drama and the Public Schools. Pittsburgh School Bulletin," 6: 1468-71, 1497-1501, November, December, 1912. Welch, John S. Dramatization. In His Literature in the School. Aims, Methods and Interpretations. New York [etc.]. Silver, Burdett & Company [1910]. Pp. 59-63. Woodbury, Sarah E. Dramatization in the Grammar Grades. Los Angeles, Baumgardt Publishing Co., 1909. 49 pp. Illus. 12°. PLAYS AND DRAMATIZATIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN. Allen, Alice E. School-room Plays and Exercises for January. Boston, New York [etc.]. Educational Publishing Company. School-room Plays and Exercises for February. Boston, New York, Educational Publishing Company. Chapman, John Jay. Four Plays for Children. New York, Moffat, Yard & Co., 1908. 156 pp. Contents: The Lost Prince, King Ithuriel, The Hermits, Christmas in Leipsic. on Clark, Frances E. Dramatizations. An "At Home" Earley, Miriam Lee, comp. Plays for Schools and Colleges. "Public Speaking Review," 2: 74-75, November, 1912. List of plays, together with the number of people required and the time. Frank, Maude H. Short Plays About Famous Authors. New York, Henry Holt, 1915. 144 pp. Hagar, Caroline. Christmas Chimes. (Adapted and dramatized from a story by an unknown author.) 'Popular Educator," 29: 187-92, December, 1911. Little Plays for Little Players. Karen and the Red Shoes. (Adapted and dramatized from Andersen's The Red Shoes.") "Primary Education," 20: 32-34, January, 1912. Myers, Emma A. The Story of Sir Galahad, the Best Knight in the World. "Primary Education," 20: 100101, February, 1912. Pratt, Mary. A Pageant of the Middle Ages. HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, VI, 277-279. St. Nicholas Book of Plays. New York, Century Co., 1900. 231 pp. Illus. Simons, Sarah E., and Orr, C. I. Dramatization: Selections from English Classics Adapted in Dramatic Form. New York, Scott, Foresman & Co., 1913. 95 pp. Tucker, Louise E., and Ryan, Estelle L. Historical Plays of Colonial Days. New York, Longmans, Green, 1912. 157 pp. Illus. Walker, Alice Johnstone. Little Plays from American History for Young Folks. New York, Henry Holt, 1914. 155 pp. American Colonies and the British Empire Colonial History, Old Style and New BY W. T. ROOT, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. The Colonial Period of American history has ever been a field of wonderful attraction for historical workers. It has furnished countless themes and an almost exhaustless body of material; the results have been embodied in a wealth of historical literature. This literature in itself occupies an important place in the records of historiography. There is an old style of treatment of the period, and a new style, each illustrating the force of the familiar saying that each generation writes its history with interests and attitude furnished by the spirit of the times. Among the older generation of historians there was a lack of balance and perspective, an inability to see historical relationship, a proneness to insularity and purpose. It is hardly to be expected that those who wrote in the generation of the American Revolution, when passions ran high and the spirit of separatism was dominant, would view the past calmly and broadly. Gordon and Ramsay on the Revolution displayed a pro-American bias; 1 Chalmers and Sted David Ramsay, "Amer. Rev." (2 vols., 1789); William Gordon, "Amer. War" (4 vols., 1788). man a pro-British attitude.? Chalmers wrote to prove that the colonies had always been actuated by a conscious desire for independence, and Stedman tried to prove that English arms failed through the incompetence of Howe and Clinton. Hutchinson, Belknap, Trumbull and Proud penned histories of the separate States, still to be numbered among the foremost of local histories, but intensely provincial in character, explaining local history by local causes alone.3 John Marshall, the famed justice of strong federal sentiment, wrote a history of the colonies to do the prefunctory service of laying a background for a life of Washington, the chief of nationalists. George Bancroft began his great work in the decade of the thirties, when the principles of 66 2 George Chalmers, Introd. to Revolt of Cols." (vol. I, 1782); Chas. Stedman, "Hist. Amer. War" (2 vols., 1794). 3 T. H. Hutchinson, "Hist. of Colony and Province of Mass." (2 vols., 1764, 1767); Jeremy Belknap, "Hist. of N. H." (3 vols., 1784-1813); Johnathan Trumbull, "Hist. of Conn. to 1764" (2 vols., 1818); Robert Proud, "Hist. of Pa." (2 vols., 1797-1798). 4 John Marshall, "Hist. of Cols." (1824). 200 democracy, liberty and equality were utopian, and he saw in colonial history the providential unfolding and triumph of the forces of democracy against the tyranny of England." John Gordon Palfrey wrote at length on New England history to the glorification of Massachusetts theocracy, and Richard Hildreth desired to wipe away from his pages on the colonies patriotic rouge and was charged with doing less than justice to the Puritan.' 6 There is no fault to be found with the treatment of particular colonies or sections, or with the unfolding of the principles of democracy. Sectionalism and particularism were dominant forces in early as in later American history; the rise of an independent democratic republic was a fact of fundamental importance in world history. The fault was that the older historians unconsciously erected a sort of Monroe doctrine in history which considered the affairs of the outside world as unrelated to those of the colonies. A doctrine designed to guide the future of the nation guided the historians of the colonial era. They failed to appreciate the interrelationship of colony and colony, the similarities of their founding, the uniformity of their growth, and their indissoluble connection with Europe. When the imperial connection was brought into view, it was only when times of crisis demanded it, and then in a spirit of unfriendliness toward England. They seemed to forget that the Declaration of Independence was a political manifesto, which left unrevealed the British side of the case. Or they were apt to treat the colonies not for their own sake, viewing them as an introduction to national history, or else moved by a sort of historical Calvinism, they considered the colonies as predestined to independence and the principles of democracy foreordained to triumph. The colonists generally were not conscious of these high aims, nor were their speculative conceptions generally realized in practice. The critical and dramatic years of the American Revolution have been generously treated in a rich literature. The picturesque age of discovery and exploration and the romantic days of early colonization have been established as classical periods. The three-quarters of a century from 1690 to 1765, from the close of one English revolution to the opening of another, has been a closed book, unattractive to historians because considered difficult to understand and void of the dramatic. Bancroft and Hildreth give the middle period of colonial history little space and inadequate treatment, Doyle allows four volumes to the period before 1714 and one to the next fifty years, and Fiske wrote charmingly of the early 8 5 Geo. Bancroft, "Hist. of U. S." (6 vols., last ed., 1888); "Atlantic Monthly," cii, 275. ® J. G. Palfrey, "Hist. of New Eng." (5 vols., 1858-1864). 7 Richard Hildreth, "Hist. of U. S., 1492-1789" (3 vols., 1849); 'No. Amer. Rev.," LXXIII, 411. 8 J. A. Doyle, "Eng. Cols. in Amer." (5 vols., 18821907). period and Revolution, practically ignoring the intervening years. And yet these decades yield to no others in the colonial era in the picturesque and in social value. No period is of more fundamental importance in the rise of the American nation or the growth of the British Empire. It was the time when there were in process of creation the forces of union and separation, the issues, the philosophy and the leaders which made possible the disruption of one empire and the founding of another. In the neglect of eighteenth century colonial history lies the failure to understand the colonies in their broad relationships. The influences of the older manner of treating the colonial era are not to be lightly estimated upon the content of American thought. There is little doubt that the older histories and text-books have intensified the inherent self-complacency and insularity of American thought and outlook, and prolonged the spirit of hostility toward England. It appears to have been, and to a great extent still is, the purpose of text-book writers and instructors to develop a spirit of patriotism at the sacrifice of truth, justice and breadth of view. Time brings in its train new visions and interests which have revealed to the present historian forces and angles of observation unknown to past writers. The period of provincialism in national history from 1823 to 1880, when the thought and energy of the American people were preoccupied with internal problems, was followed by a period of external expansion. Colonies, commerce, sea-power, diplomacy, the essential elements of an imperialistic career, became pressing questions. The deflection in the course of present history turned students to a reconsideration of the past with new points of view. Admiral Mahan began his remarkable contributions on the influence of sea-power in history,10 and Henry Adams wrote with full appreciation of the foreign affairs of the United States during the Napoleonic era. In 1893 Professor Turner read a paper on the significance of the American frontier, and Mr. Beer published his monograph on the colonial policy of England in America.11 Both were of signal importance, the one marking the beginning of a study of the colonizing activities of the United States in the Mississippi Valley, the other of the old colonies as phenomena of European expansion. Hard upon the issue of the Spanish war came college courses, articles and books on colonies, sea-power, diplomacy and world politics, expressive of the interest of the age. In the year of the war, Professor Osgood, of Columbia, and Andrews, now of Yale, in noteworthy papers pleaded the importance of studying the colonies in their imperial connection, of substituting unity and • John Fiske, "Historical Works 99 (1899-1900). 10 A. T. Mahan, "Influence Sea Power on Hist.," 16601783 (1890). 11 F. J. Turner, "Significance of the Frontier," Amer. Hist. Asso. Report, 1893, 197; Beer, "Com. Pol. Eng. toward Cols.," Columbia College Studies, III, 1893. breadth in the treatment of the colonies for the older partial and isolated views.12 teers. 13 The point of view of the historical worker is determined not alone by the bias of his time. Historical scholarship had advanced. The development of scientific methods in the weighing and analysis of historical evidence, the eager search for the material of history, the ultimate aim of eliciting truth and accuracy, all have done much to banish narrowness of attitude, purpose and partiality from the field of historical endeavor. The eager search for truth and accuracy was led far afield for the discovery of sources of information unknown or unavailable to older writProfessor Andrews has performed a noteworthy service not only in emphasizing the need of a thorough exploitation of unutilized colonial records of large bulk in British archives, but also in the elaboration of guides furnishing the student a knowledge of the location, nature and extent of these sources. When this material has been subject to analysis, then colonial history will be rid of the isolation ascribed to it, and the attitude of hostility to the mother country will be changed. But the amount of these records is so vast, so little is available in the form of print and transcript, so much remains in original form, that the results have been meagre, embodied ir articles, monographs and general works on special aspects or narrow periods. It will require years of diligent labor by pioneer investigators to blaze the trail and push back the frontier in preparation for the master historical builder in his task of correlating the parts and interpretating the whole of colonial-imperial history. Much has been done by historical societies of various kinds to publish the British colonial records, and the colonial documents published by the States contain the British sources. "The Calendar of State Papers, Colonial," 15741703, an undertaking of the British government, and the "Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial," 1613-1783, published at private expense, contain a wealth of material and reveal the importance of the imperial point of view.14 The introductions to these volumes are especially illuminating. The history of America is inextricably interwoven with the civilization of Europe. The interrelation and interaction of the Old World and the New was a pervading and persistent factor in our history till the year of the Monroe doctrine. The colonies in the field of American history, the rise of an independent nation, have been generously treated. And there is no quarrel with the older patriotic historians, with all their faults, for comprehending the colonies 12 Amer. Hist. Asso. Reports, 1898, pp. 47-73; see also ibid., 1902, I, 169, and 1908, I, 109. 13 Andrews and Davenport, "Guide to Mss. Materials for Hist. U. S. to 1783," in various Eng. libraries (1908); Andrews, same for the Public Record Office (2 vols., 19121914). 14" Cal. State Papers, Col., 1574-1703" (16 vols., 18601913); "Acts Privy Council, Col., 1613-1783" (6 vols., 19081912). from within, for treating them as independent processes of evolution. It would be a serious mistake to treat the colonies as mere appendages of England, to try to explain colonial history largely from the standpoint of the mother country. On the other hand, there is much justification for treating the colonies as phenomena of European expansion. There is danger, however, that the new school of historians will run into the extreme of trying to explain colonial history entirely by external factors. The chief task of the historian is to weave together in proper balance and proportion the various factors, English, European and American, and their relations, whether he is interested in the rise of a new nation or the creation of an old empire. 16 There are a few general works which reflect the newer tendencies in the historical interpretation of the colonies. The slender volume by Andrews on the Colonial Period reveals in a capable way the unity and breadth of the era when the three factors, the colonies, England and the relations between them, are properly interwoven.15 Becker, in his "Beginnings of the American People," primarily an interpretation of the origins and growth of the colonies as an introduction to the history of the United States, knows equally well his American and European history. The several volumes in the American Nation Series on the colonial era do not fail to take into account the mother country and Europe.17 Egerton's "History of British Colonial Policy devotes half a good-sized volume to the old colonies.18 Channing allots three of an eight-volume 'History of the United States to the colonial era, and while there are errors of omission and commission, they are due to the abundance of new material and the paucity of preliminary investigation of it.10 The history is the first extensive work to appreciate the imperial connection and to describe the neglected eighteenth century. The requirements of space prohibit more than a limited survey of the colonies as part of the British empire prior to 1765. Attention will be given only to two aspects of the imperial relation, the commercial and political, and references will be made to the more prominent work done in these fields. In no respect does colonial history belie the isolation ascribed to it, and exhibit greater scope than Commerce in the matter of commercial expansion. was the foundation of European interest in colonies, and commerce was the chief underlying factor in the economic life of the colonies. They were parts of a great commercial empire stretching from Hud |