9:50 and you know the finest flour is never brought to this market for sale Irish potatoes has sold for 450 per barrel. . . . Old Mr. and Mrs. Poytress were well the last I heard of them the Old Gentleman still clings to his Democracy. . . . President Pearce fills the Bill with him and I expect he thinks that Pearce is as big a man as Parson Minter or Parson Parks. Esqr. Bell as usual is still about the same, I think a clever man you know he is a Nebraska Bill man although he has no niggers. Yet he hires other men's to be deviled with and thinks that Niggers make a good shade in Summer and fire in Winter. What if we do want all the Territory for our niggers you know that we will be crowded here after a while and what then. Where can we work them to advantage if we should fail to get our share of the uninhabited lands. You know so soon as they become unprofitable to us we will have no use for them, the Southern Planter is like the Army Worm they are destroying the Soil as fast as they can. Some of them have already wore out 2 farms, and by the same course you know our country will become poor and then we must move west and clear more land and in fact we want our Negroes to do our work that we may live at ease and raise our Corn and fat our Pork and do just what we please. Sometimes they run away. Sometimes they are badly treated. Sometimes they treat their owners badly. I do not doubt but they are better off where they are well treated than if they were free and in New York. They cause men to commit sin and they are certainly a great aggravation but what could we do with them there is not one in 50 that would if freed tomorrow that would make a living. Some are even to lazy to steal. You know that I am lenient to mine, I give them time to make their own crops; and frequently I have to compel them to work it after planting, then for the good of the slaves I say let us carry them wherever we can make money out of them, so as we may never have them to thickly settled in any one State. You know they increase very fast and we are compelled to feed clothe and pay Taxes Dr. Bills, &c. and it is very necessary that we should have room. I do not doubt but Mr. Douglass is bidding for the Presidency but he can never occupy the white house he can never get the support of Southern Whigs, and being the Father of the Nebrasca bill I think he can never carry the northern Democrats. Some few may side with him but Mr. Benton speaks my sentiments of him when he says he is dead Politically. If he carrays the bill through or fails it will all be the same to him he is gone to far ever to sit in the Presidential chair. I know the bill suits the south but Southern Whigs will never support him and the southern Democrats are not strong enough to elect him. He need not care about running for Milliard Fillmore if he lives will be the next president. Let all things go on do not stir up the hot blood of the South any more for they comes very near of the brink of ruin a few years ago when our Governor recommended prompt and peaceable SeAnd what think you of President Pearce's Cabinet-some are rabid Abolitionists some are hot cession. blood fire Eaters all classes are in Mr. Pearce's Cabinett and I fear that before his time is up, we will need another Clay: where, O where will he come from: there is not a man in the U. S. on whome the nation can look, and be assured that his mighty intellect is sufficient to stop the tide that seems as if it ere long would over run the republic as they once looked on the mighty Clay. Webster is gone! Bell of Tennessee is now the ablest man and the safest statesman in the Senate but the people the whole people cannot turn their eyes on him in time of danger as they once did on Clay. Clay, Webster, and Calhoun are gone their places I think are not filled in the Senate of the U. S. I fear the passage of the Bill Douglass will again lay open the gate for agitation. I fear northern abolitionists will seize the opportunity and will keep up a continual fuss and harangue about the fugitive slave bill and carry further their Views in regards to the District of Columbia but why, O why should northern men take on so much about the Territories is it not enough to let the people do as they choose when they come to form their constitutions are they not the proper Judges? Is it not democratic for them to do as the majority wishes? Why should there be any law to keep the slaveholders from the Territories? If at the making of the Constitution a majority should be opposed to Negro slavery let them leave or let their slaves be free and if otherwise let the abolitionists or freesoiler do the same. Why harrass us you men of the north about our negroes. You stole them years ago. You run them south. Where did they come from. Yankee men brought them from Africa for the sake of Gold and now the thing is shut up from them they wish to release them from their proper owners. Pay back your ill gotten gold. Yes and while one side of the cheek is all sorrow and tears for the poor well fed negro of the south the other is radient with the return sale of a cargo of New England rum from Africa." The Yankees are the strongest abolitionists in the United States and if the African Slave Trade was not done away with you would even now find your ships destined and cleared for some port in Africa instead of Wales. You know you of the north love to make money and it is generally recognized that a Yankee will do anything to get hold of the critter from the making of a wooden nutmeg to that of a hickory ham they never back out, and I assure you nine out of ten that remain with us for any length of time buy negroes and make them work Cotton. My nearest neighbor a baptist clergyman was from the North a few years ago and I expect he came south to make money by preaching but he has bought negroes and I expect he whips them when they need it. I know we will be responsible for the manner in which we treat them but we of the south cannot be responsible for slavery. The north, the north must bear the blame and dark will be the record against them. (You know I mean not the Present Generation.) Friend Greene you will Please write again soon for I was gratified to read your letter. I am your Southern friend. JAMES E. CRANSHAW. How Teach the History of the West in American History BY PROFESSOR HOWARD W. CALDWELL, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. I. THE DIFFICULTIES OF HANDLING THE PROBLEM. That the west has been an important factor in the evolution of the United States no one at the present time doubts. But the question naturally arises whether its history shall be given as a separate course, or as part of the usual general courses in American history. When the teaching of history in the grades has reached such a standard that the students of the high schools have a good and clear outline of the leading facts of American history, then one may feel free to advocate giving distinct courses on the various lines of its development; such, for example, as on political parties, industrial forces, financial problems, social and religious progress, constitutional evolution, and western movements. as it is doubtful whether specialization can be successful until the student has a reasonable familiarity with the leading facts of a nation's life, the following outline attempts to meet both conditions; and to present the western problems in such manner that those teachers who so desire may use it as the basis of a special course, while others may use its suggestions as an aid in their general courses. But There seem to be two points of view from which "The West" ought to be considered in teaching American history. The first has to do with its influence on the formation of a new people or nation.” The second takes into special consideration the rising problems that this new people of 1776" had to solve as a resultant of the continued existence of a 'West" for more than a century thereafter. In fact, it may be said that even to-day there are Wests with differing characteristics. One lies between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi River, with a second one extending from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains; a third one lies along the Pacific Coast, with some justification, perhaps, in the claim that the Rocky Mountain region ought to be considered a rising west." If these " tion constitutes a "people" as truly as does the population of England, Ireland, France, Italy, Spain ble, to fix a definite date for the birth of this Amerior Germany. It is extremely difficult, if not impossican people. As early as 1765 there were signs that the colonies were no longer in political harmony with the mother country. By 1776 they had come to look especially at political problems, from such different points of view, that the result was the War of the American Revolution, and the independence of the thirteen colonies. A more perfect American people-one conscious of itself to a degree not present in 1776—may be seen in the years following the War of 1812; for, by this time a new generation, born and reared under self-government, had come to manhood and to dominance in every phase of human life. summarized by noting that the foundation for this The plan and purpose of the paper may then be new people was laid during the colonial period; that it became conscious of itself in the early years of independence; and that its gradual modification in to the standards of to-day took place after the second war of independence the War of 1812. that led to the formation of an American people, and II. THE FRONTIER OR WEST AS A PRIME FACTOR IN The first frontier in American history was in reality a frontier to Europe and embraced the nearby section along the Atlantic Coast. In a general way this American frontier to Europe may be said to end with the Revolution of 1776. From 1607 to about 1700 the dominant factor was planting colonies and thus laying the foundation for the next period which closed about 1763-the period of the evolution and development of American industrial and commercial interests: the years 1763 to 1776 may be characterized as the "eye-opener" years, or the years during which the difference in interests and in points of view were brought to the front, and, at least in part, made conscious. 1 There are many scattered references on this topic, but only a few direct discussions of it have yet been made. The Wests are still to be differentiated and given special study, then it also becomes necessary to note that they have as in the past northern and southern wings. In general, however, it may be affirmed that all these sections are rapidly tending to form one whole and to look at the main problems of life from essentially the same point of view. But, perhaps, in order that there may be no misunderstanding, it ought following are especially valuable: F. J. Turner, “Signifito be emphasized that the "West," in the sense in which the word has been used in the past, has practically ceased to be, as the frontier has gone, and hereafter the solution of coming problems will be on the basis of interests rather than of sections." The word "frontier" is perhaps the best word to use as causative of the gradual evolution of a new people" with such marked characteristics as give to the United States the right to claim that its popula " cance of the Frontier" (Am. His. Assoc. Reports, 1893), The forces at work during all these years were due to the new environment under which the American settlers lived. The immigrants were English, Irish and Scotch in origin, with a French, Dutch and German supplement-but so small that its influence at that time on the evolution of a new people is almost or quite negligible. The climate, soil, north and south mountain ranges, and other features of physical geography, affected the physical, mental, and industrial characteristics of the settlers; and thus laid the foundation for a new race. The remoteness from Europe-due to the broad Atlantic and the slow means of transportation, severed in the main their connection with the mother country, and thus lessened or destroyed the influence of European traditions on the new generations that gradually, as the years passed, replaced the early and original settlers. With comparatively few exceptions, the immigrants came from the middle or humbler classes, hence, brought with them few of the aristocratic views of life, and, perhaps, also little of the culture that might have aided in retaining or at least prolonging European standards, customs, and ideas. Thus in the main the settlers were relatively free and ready to adapt themselves to the new conditions which environed them. It should also be noted, and the details worked out, how the necessity of subduing a new country, of nearly everyone taking part in physical labor, and also of living to a great extent an isolated life, tended naturally to emphasize individualism, to develop democracy, and to establish a desire for self-government. With the growth of this desire to solve their own problems, which they gradually came to appreciate differed from those of the mother country, and which, therefore, they naturally felt were not understood by the English Government, the foundation was laid for controversies and increasing alienation. There were also, almost from the earliest hour of colonial life, religious differences which naturally tended to produce separate lines of evolution. There were also differences, due to restrictions on manufacturing in the colonies and commercial relations with the world, which tended to give varying viewpoints of life's problems to the peoples on the two sides of the Atlantic Ocean. These factors, and many others, especially along governmental and industrial lines, should be studied and emphasized until they become ingrained in the mind of the students to such a degree that they can understand the marked, and in many cases the fundamental differences that separated the American people from their European ancestors. Thus, by 1783, this American frontier to Europe had laid the foundation for a new people with new social, religious, industrial and especially political ideas and ideals. The tendency was democratic. In practice, however, the right to vote was limited; and the methods of political organization were such that the few still dominated. Viewed from the European standpoint the United States of 1783 constituted one people. Viewed from local conditions there was a fairly distinct east and west. The United States was a frontier to Europe; but the region fifty miles more from the coast formed a frontier to the Atlantic district. The east was relatively stable with rather definite standards; while the western population was again in ferment due to a new environment and new problems. The differences were not great, yet they were sufficient to divide the people sectionally on such an important issue as the adoption of the Constitution of 1787. Political parties came into being under the new Constitution in the early '90's. In the main the strength of the Federalists was along the coast, in the cities, and the older settled sections; while the west, almost to a man, supported Jefferson and the Republican party. The "East" as thus used was constantly expanding and moving towards the Mississippi River, the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast. The west, or the frontier, was at first along the eastern border of the Alleghany Mountains; then it had a sufficient development in the Ohio Valley to play a part for the second time in the nation's evolution. In 1820, in connection with the Missouri struggle, it moved across the Mississippi River, but the part played by the Missouri Valley frontier did not reach its greatest importance until after the Civil War. The problems arising from the Pacific Coast and the Rocky Mountain States, reached their climax only in recent years. The fact that the growing east was incorporating into its life sections that had been frontiers and had thus developed new ideas, interests, and points of view, must be kept in mind, since the east itself was thus gradually being modified in its views on public questions, whether political, religious, social, industrial or financial. Each new west was also different from its ancestor or predecessor, for the climate, soil and industrial conditions varied as did also the settlers in each frontier, whether they were Americans who moved to the west, or immigrants who came from Europe or Asia. Thus it is also true that each new west has to be studied to find out the reasons for its attitude on life's problems, and hence its influence on their solution. Perhaps it may be of value to note that one factor which affected the origin and character and helped to fix the time of the beginning of these frontiers, is found in changes in the methods of travel and transportation. Previous to about 1820, the hand-cart, the pack-horse, and the Conestoga wagon began, and the Ohio flat-boat which only drifted down the river, completed the means of travel to the west. This meant that the chief growth in population in this period was to be in the south-west, for the rivers determined largely the section to be developed. "Drifting" was the basis of growth. Indiana, Illinois, Ohio in part, and Missouri naturally got the controlling faction of their early populations from the southern and central states. From the use of the newly invented steamboat by 1820, the canal boat by 1825, and the railroad ten years later, a marked change took place. The lakes now became the natural centers of traffic, so that the north poured its population into the northern sections of these States. "Purpose" and "will power " and not "drifting' drifting" were now the great and controlling factors. The southern-west dominated till the '40's, as the result of the transportation conditions. In the last years before the Civil War, a new west, due to science and its inventions, controlled the Mississippi frontier. After the war the mode and character of the settlements again changed because of inventive developments. In the years preceding the Civil War, the means of transit, as a rule, were constructed, whether roads, canals, or railroads, after the settlements had been made. This forced the settlers to live a very simple life with few of the conveniences and none of the luxuries of a well developed section of country. After the Civil War the reverse was true, so that, as a rule, the Missouri valley settlers came on the railroads and thus expected to enjoy all the comforts of life from the moment of settlement. This hope and new point of view precipitated new issues. The railroad rates and management came to the front. The Granger societies, legislative and judicial decisions opened new problems, influenced the life of the nation, and marked the temporary outcome of the demand of the settlers for equal opportunities with their eastern friends. The ultimate result of all these frontiers, with the action and reaction between each other and with the east, has been to create the present day American people one yet lacking perfect harmony in its psychology, its mental and moral standards, and its aims; yet, judged by the past, one that may hope to live in more perfect co-operation as the years come and go. This living on the frontier for generations has intensified the democratic spirit as may be seen in the granting of woman suffrage, and the development of the initiative—a measure which tends to replace republicanism by democracy. The existence of the west has also tended not only to intensify democracy and to make it an actual force in social and political problems, but it has also helped to build up a people and a nation, rather than leave localisms and many peoples in existence. The settlers in the successive series of frontiers came from all sections and States of the Union, and from Europe and even the world. Thus living side by side they lost provincial love and characteristics, and came to look at life from a national, and to a limited degree, from a world point of view. The constant movement from place to place, the constant change of one neighbor for another one, helped to form an American people, and thus prevent the growth of sectional or provincial characteristics. The unfortunate movement of slavery from east to west, as a sectional factor, tended to prevent the full and early realization of this unified American people that the successive frontiers have been the most remarkable and wonderful factors in developing. This brief outline of the influence of the west or frontiers in helping to form a new people, with new ideals and new characteristics may be developed to the degree that each teacher feels time will permit or available material will justify. Other characteristics than democracy may be accentuated, and a comparison in detail between the American people and their European cousins may also be worked out. III. NATIONAL PROBLEMS THAT HAVE DEVELOPED BECAUSE OF THE EXISTENCE OF THE WEST. Under this heading, which perhaps may seem rather dogmatic, may be included such problems as the origin of the national territory, the organization and development of territorial governments, the public land system, the expansion of the nation by the acquisition of new possessions, the admission of new States into the Union, and the final precipitation of the Slavery issue. A great western problem confronted Congress and the American people even before independence was won. The question of who should possess and control the unsettled western lands was made an issue by Maryland's insistence that these lands ought to belong to the union and not to the separate States. The question proved to be of great moment and one that had to be settled before a Union could be formed. The following outline or syllabus attempts to suggest the main questions that ought to be studied in order to understand this first great western problem, and also to suggest how other problems may be outlined: 1. Origin of the National Territory.2 A. The boundary of the United States: 1776-1783. 1. Claims of the larger States. a. Basis of the various claimants. 2. Position of the small States with definite boundaries. a. Reasons for their attitude. 3. Conflicting claims of the large States. 1. Cessions of their claims by New York, Virginia, Massachusetts and Connecticut 1781-1786. a. Amount of territory ceded. b. Conditions imposed by Virginia and Connecticut. 2. Cession of their claims by South Carolina, North Carolina and Georgia-1787-1802. a. Amount of territory yielded. b. Reasons for cession. D. Influence of action on American history. 1. 1781. Articles of confederation accepted. 4. Laid foundation for territorial frontiers. E. Do you find any suggestion in regard to the 1. Spirit that led to the cessions. 2. Developed interest to remain in the Union. 2. Organization of Territorial Governments.3 With the transfer by the States to the Union of this vast western territory, some 404,956 square miles-an area nearly equal to France and Germany combined-new problems at once came to the front. In fact, the cessions had not all been made when the question of establishing a government over the territory arose. In 1784 a congressional committee, of which Jefferson was chairman, made a report which became the basis of discussion till July 13, 1787, when the famous Ordinance for the government of the North West Territory was passed. The Ordinance prescribed the conditions on which property could be inherited, wills made, and personal property conveyed from one person to another. The spirit was to establish liberal and democratic principles. The executive and judicial officials were to be appointed by the Central Government. The governor, secretary, and judges must all be owners of land, as well as residents in the territory during their terms. The upper house of the legislature was also appointed. The lower house was to be elected by the people of the territory, but only those who owned at least fifty acres of land could vote. Thus the English principle of putting power into the hands of the land owners was accepted. The spirit of the west and democracy in time eliminated this land ownership principle; and by 1886, in the law organizing the territory of Wisconsin, Congress made the positive requirement that all free white male residents should have the right to vote for members of both houses of the territorial legislature. This right of the people to elect the members of the upper, as well as the lower, house of the legislature was secured to the territories in the Florida law of 1826. Other minor changes were made from time to time; yet, on the whole, it may be said that the governmental principles provided in the "Ordinance of 1787" remained dominant till the end of the existence of territories. This noted Ordinance also had six articles of compact. The relation of the United States and the territory-and the States to be formed therefrom-is expressed in Section 14, which provided that the following articles. shall be considered Articles of Compact," and remain forever unaltered except by common consent. The six articles of compact provided for religious freedom, a bill of rights, education, a permanent union, from three to five States, and the exclusion of slavery forever from the North-West Territory. One should go farther than this brief outline, if possible; hence, if time permits, study the details of the Ordinance of 1787 as a foundation for an investigation into western territorial governments. Pick out such Acts of Congress as provided for the organization, for example, of such territories as Missouri, Michigan, Arkansas, Wisconsin, New Mexico, Iowa, Nebraska, Washington and Arizona, and note the changes made in details and principles. Then an effort to determine the reasons for the modifications, and the influence of the "West" will give a good insight into one phase of American growth. 3. Expansion: Acquisition of New Territory.* The expansion of the United States might well be taken as a topic for a special study. However, as it is one of the problems that has influenced the west, and in turn been influenced by it to a remarkable degree, it seems proper in this paper to make a brief outline in order to suggest the phases of its history that have to do especially with the subject A. The acquisition of Louisiana, 1803. under discussion-"The West." (a) Louisiana. H. Adams, "History of the United States," I, II, 25-115; F. A. Ogg, "Opening of the Mississippi," 495-574; W. F. Johnson, Century of Expan sion," 73-127; J. K. Hosmer, "Purchase of Louisiana," 73127. (b) Florida. H. B. Fuller, "Purchase of Florida; " F. C. Chadwick, "The United States and Spain," I, 42-110; Bab cock, "The Rise of American Nationality," 271-289; Bruce, "Romance of American Expansion," 51-77. (c) Texas. G. P. Garrison, "Westward Expansion," 84156; Rives, "The United States and Mexico," II, 53-80, 105127; J. H. Smith, "Annexation of Texas; J. F. Rhodes, "History of the United States," I, 75-87; Reeves, "Diplomacy Under Tyler and Polk; " Polk's Diary. (Use index, Vol. IV.) (d) Oregon. Garrison, 157-173; J. B. McMaster, "History of the American People," V, 18-27, 463-483; VI, 429434, 515-518; VII, 271-304, 407-420; J. Schafer, "History of the Pacific North-West." (e) California. G. P. Garrison, 208-268 (scattered references); J. S. Reeves, "Diplomacy Under Tyler and Polk," 58-329; McMaster, V, 65-70, 80-98; Coman, "Economic Beginnings of the Far West," II, 207-319; Bruce, 136-156; various histories of California. |