claims of the United States. Naturally, the Indian Wars in many cases arose as the result of the frontiersmen forcing their way beyond the treaty boundaries, and thus arousing the hatred of the Indians whose interests they antagonized. On the whole, however, the Indian problems must be studied from a broader standpoint than a mere frontier contact, since the relations between the white man and the Indians have racial and historical rather than territorial foundations. The policy of England in early days and of the United States since independence, until very recent years, must be held mainly responsible for the failure to solve the conflicting interests which affected the west for centuries and to reconcile the standards of life of the two races. V. A GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE WEST OR THE FRONTIER ON THE EVOLUTON OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. On Democracy. In order to understand the progressive development of democracy in American history, a careful study of the west must be made. On the whole it may be claimed that each frontier from the Atlantic to the Pacific made a contribution, either in intensification of its spirit or in some special field or detail. The Federal party of 1798 had little confidence in the capacity of the masses. It had also attempted to form a constitution and to give it an interpretation that would leave most power in the hands of the few. As the west increased in population the Republican party outgrew the Federalists, but even it believed merely in the capacity of the people to choose the wise and able to be their leaders. The Whigs of 1840 took relatively the same position as the Republicans of 1800, while the Democrats led by Jackson professed to have faith in the people's capacity, not only to vote but also to serve as leaders in legislative and administrative offices. However, it was not till very recent years that the political machinery such as the convention, the Australian ballot, the initiative, referendum, and recall, the election of senators by the people, and the corrupt practices acts made the actual realization of the democratic doctrine possible. These movements, as well as other measures enlarging the power of the masses have been, in the main, evolved in the west. Religious freedom, Religious freedom, complete separation of church and state, and the growth of denominational good-will and mutual respe ct may also be shown to have been in part developed with the westward march of population. Attempts to develop industrial democracy, or at least to limit the control of the industries by the few, has found not always the most efficient, but, perhaps, always the most universal support in the western States. Forms, customs, ceremonies and fixed standards of social life have broken down in the west. Of course, the question of the wisdom of these many changes, as well as of the forces that have led to them, may well be discussed.

2. On Nationality. One of the strongest factors that have led to the development of a real nationality may be found in the growth of the west.

From

1776 to about 1816, at least, the average individual centered his love in his State, and not in the nation. But Ohio, for example, was settled by immigrants from half the States in the Union, with many foreigners added. To them Ohio was a unit of the nation; it was the United States and not Ohio that

had gradually won their love. In the same way and even to a greater degree Wisconsin, Nebraska and the Dakotas, plus all the other far western States are in the minds of their people only parts of a greater whole. Localism has now little influence in the west, while a century ago provincialism was the dominant spirit along the Atlantic Coast. The States have become less and less important. Pride in the nation rules, in fact, to such a degree that national egotism may perhaps be said to dominate the minds of the American people.

3. On expansion. This expansion from ocean to ocean, forced largely by the growing west, has, till to-day, tended to accentuate materialism and peace, rather than war and militarism. The additions of Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Oregon and California removed all danger of any powerful nation, adjacent to the United States, being developed, and thus satisfied the minds of the American people that there was little or no danger of external destruction. Also as the industrial conquest of a new country demands all the time, energy and capacity of its settlers, their minds were naturally absorbed in the acquisition of wealth which led to emphasis on materialism. However, events prove that beneath this material tendency there is an idealism that at least lessens the danger from this love of the "Almighty Dollar."

4. On Industrial Development. Naturally, the existence of a vast unoccupied west, with cheap and fertile lands, tended to prolong the supremacy of agricultural interests, and to delay the development of a distinct labor class. On the whole, wages remained fairly remunerative in the entire country; for the cheap lands of early days, and the homesteads of later years, gave each man an option of seeking self-employment on a western farm, or of engaging as an employee of an eastern factory. Each section of the west had its own type of development. In the Ohio Valley, with its lands covered with dense timber the problems were very different from those that confronted the later settlers on the prairies of the Mississippi and Missouri Valleys or those who sought homes in the mountainous districts. In early days there were no markets for such crops as wheat or fruits, so stock-raising had to be made almost the sole industry. On the other hand, even in the early days of Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas, railroads already existed, so markets were available for the easily raised grain crops. But as there is no limit to problems in this field, the above must be accepted as examples given to call attention to the lines of needed investigation.

5. On Financial Problems. The west was not very successful in handling the financial problems that it had to meet. Lacking wealth and ready capital,

money, banking, taxation, and debt, problems were always perplexing. The results were, as a rule, to create antagonism between the east and the west. Each misinterpreted the other. The people of the west felt certain that the capitalists of the east were manipulating the banking and money systems for their own advantage. On the other hand, the east doubted the honesty of the west, and believed that the attempts made to increase the number of State banks in early days, and to uphold the greenbacks and bimetalism in later years, were for the purpose of paying their debts in a depreciated currency. In the main, both were wrong in their suspicions. Both were misled by the fact of the existence of such different environments that they were unable to understand the mind of each other. The spirit of the west favored a policy beneficial to the common people; but in the many, perhaps in the majority of cases, the intent was better than the policy adopted.

TH 6. In Regard to Social Tendencies. It is not very difficult to find sufficient material to get a fairly good and accurate idea of the social tendencies that developed in the west. To determine the extent of the influence on the life of the nation is, of course, much more difficult.

In general it has to be accepted that crudeness was a marked quality, and a lack of refinement not unusual. Simplicity was an almost universal quality and was a characteristic not only of the mind, but also controlled the forms of social life, dress and the make up of the homes. It was, and still is true, that there were no class distinctions, and that personal respect was well nigh universal; yet this statement seems to be modified by noting the extent to which personal quarrels and physical violence prevailed. Even in very early days a fair degree of education was recognized as desirable; yet it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that any adequate provisions were made for even elementary education. In recent years the west is not second to any section of the country in its enthusiasm for adequate high schools and state universities. The plans of education are such as to give the poor as good opportunities as those have who are in better financial conditions. Religious differences have had very little social effect, and co-operation in public activities is scarcely influenced by religious sentiment. Religious debates were common on the frontier, but they do not seem to have hindered the social uplift that was sought by the masses. Some of the marked characteristics of the people of the west may be expressed in rather radical words, such as optimism, exuberant hopefulness and egotism. They were and, perhaps, still are materialistic, that is ready to work and to accumulate property; yet they also are given to extravagant spending in many cases. Idealism comes to the front in any case of serious illness; and the sacrifices that a farmer and his wife are ready to make to aid a neighbor who has suffered some mis

fortune proves the depth of idealism in the heart. Of all the marked qualities, individualism in early days stands foremost; but the more recent tendency is to

emphasize the common good and to stand for social betterment. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The shorter histories that will supplement the high school text-books should be made available to the students in this work. Some of the decidedly good ones are J. S. Bassett, "A Short History of the United States (New York, 1913), especially pp. 99-186, 231-235, 247-325, 341-357, 461-482 and 676-690; H. W. Elson, "A Short History of the United States (New York, 1906), especially pp. 216-219, 319-321, 452-463, 525-538 and 571-578; 'The Riverside History of the United States," Vol. I (Becker), Ch. V; Vol. II (Johnson), Ch. XIV and XVII; Vol. III (Dodd), Ch. II and XI; Vol. IV (Paxson), Ch. II, IX, XIII, XIV, XVII; many other chapters contain valuable material. E. B. Greene,

Foundations of American Nationality" (not yet published), and C. R. Fish, "The Development of American Nationality," especially Ch. I, II, V, IX, XI, XVII and XXVIII. The following references to high school text-books will be found of special value: James and Sandford (New York, 1909), pp. 128-142, 183-195, 204-213, 222-224, 273-281, 353Forman (New York, 357, 455-456, 521-523; 1914), pp. 115-121, 159-160, 249-252, 291-293, 326333, 357-360 and 409-413; West (New York, 1913), pp. 143-147, 182-235, 249-278, 348-356, 437447, 470-491, 516-519, 545-549 and 652-657; Muzzey (New York, 1911), pp. 229-236, 328349, 506-510; Hart (New York, 1905), pp. 220247, 261-275, 289-368, 565-578; McLaughlin (New York, 1899), pp. 151-168, 296-364, 536-542.

It is

are

There are many more extended histories that contain matter usable by high school students. impossible to name all, but the following ones History of the easily available: E. Channing, United States," Vol. III, 431-552; The American Nation Series," each volume should be used and the teacher can add to the following special suggestions: VIII, 222-241, 206-221; IX, 175-203, 269288; X, 154-167, 184-318; and especially Vols. XIV, XVII and XXV; J. B. McMaster, History of the People of the United States," every volume contains very valuable material; Schouler, "History of the United States," Vol. II, Ch. VII; Vol. III, Ch. XIII, Sect. II, and Vol. IV, Ch. XIII continued; J. E. M. Avery, "History of the United States and Its People" (Cleveland, 1904-1910); J. F. Rhodes,

History of the United States" (1850-1877); W. Wilson, "History of the American People." For the influence of geography on American history use Ellen C. Semple, "American History and Its Geographic Conditions," and A. P. Brigham, "Geographic Influences."

Some works of a more technical and special nature, but of great value in a study of the west, are the following: J. Winsor, "The Westward Move

ment;" Max Farrand, "The West and the Principles of the Revolution" (Yale Review, XVII); L. Farrand,

rand, "Basis of American History;" D. R. Dewey,

"Financial History of the United States;" C. D. Wright, "Industrial Evolution of the United States;" F. W. Taussig, "Tariff History;" E. Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies;" J. L. Ringwalt, "Development of Transportation Systems;" Roosevelt, "Winning of the West;" Coman, "Industrial History of the United States;" Beard, "Economic Interpretation of the Constitution;" Beard, "Economic Interpretation of Jeffersonian Republicanism."

Perhaps the very best material on the development of the west is found in historical and economic publications. Among others, the teacher should aim to secure the following: "Johns Hopkins University Studies in History," Annual Reports of the American Historical Association," The American Historical Review," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science," "The American Political Science Review." Their contents may be made accessible by the use of the bibliographical guides cited by Mr. McKinley in his article on "The Colonial Period" in the HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE for October, 1915.

Source collections should also be made available to the student as far as possible. The following ones are especially recommended: Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries;" Caldwell and Persinger, "Source History of the United States;" MacDonald, Documentary Source Book;" Book;" James, "Readings in American History;" McLaughlin, "Readings on the History of the American Nation;' Muzzey, Readings in American History;" West, Source Book in American History;" Caldwell, "Territorial Expansion."

Periodical Literature

EDITED BY GERTRUDE BRAMLETTE RICHARDS, PH.D.

Some recent articles for and against preparedness are: "Armed Insanity" ("The New Republic," January, 1916), in which the adoption of a positive policy in regard to armaments which will clear the ambiguity of our relations with the rest of the world is urged; "The Arming of America" ("Living Age," January, 1916), an English view of the President's policy; "Defending America" ("Scientific Monthly," January, 1916), which states our danger and advocates a moderate program of preparedness; "The West and Preparedness" (" Independent," January 10), a protest by the Governor of Kansas against preparedness; "The Insanity of Preparedness," by Congressman Kitchin ("Independent," December 20, 1915); "Making Americans ("Outlook," February 2, 1916).

scrupulously exact distribution of notes, which by their calculated balance have lost their sense of reality and their effectiveness. Germany has obviously treated them with small respect and the British public have come to look for them with a certain amused tolerance.

Americanism," by Agnes Repplier ("The Atlantic Monthly "), is a defense of President Wilson's policy. "Everybody's" for January has reprinted a few war dispatches from the newspapers of 1863.

Rev. Everett Stackpole's article on "The Birthplace of

General John Sullivan " in the current number of the "Granite Monthly" presents some interesting glimpses of Revolutionary life in New Hampshire.

Sidney Low's article on 'The Orientation of History" in the "Fortnightly" for February, is most interesting. He closes by predicting that "in the light of all that is happening history will have less encouragement to pursue that somewhat arid path of generalization and abstraction which the feet of Clio never tread with ease. It may be tempted to go back to description, narrative and biography; and will not be less instructive, or in any real sense, less scientific on that account."

"Batoche: A Forgotten Capital," by H. W. Hewitt ("The Canadian Magazine" for March), is an interesting account of the Saskatchewan.

Dr. Charles H. McCarthy discusses National Preparedness as Illustrated by American History" in "The Catholic World" for March, and dwells at length on the fact that America's policy has never been one of national preparedness.

The Bamff Charter, 1232-1703, is ably discussed by Sir Archibald Geikie in the Scottish Historical Review" for January, under the title of "A Scottish Charter-Chest." Out of a dry-as-dust collection he has produced an interesting picture of early Scottish life.

Professor Carl Darling Buck, of the University of Chicago, in an article entitled, "Language and the Sentiment of Nationality ("American Political Science Quarterly," February, 1916), endeavors to distinguish between race and nationality, and to illustrate the relation between language and nationality from the minor people of Eastern Europe.

Biard D'Annet's "After the War, the Reorganization of Our Colonial System," in "Le Correspondant" for January, calls attention to the past mistakes of the French government's colonial policy, due to its inability to recognize that sovereignty should be divided between the conquered and the conquerors. He also outlines a suggestion for reform in this line.

The "Deutsche Rundschau" for January contains the fourth and last installment of Herman Freiherr von Egloffstein's edition of Carl Bertuch's Diary of the Congress of Vienna.

The National Review " for February, 1916, has an interesting article by Professor F. J. C. Hearnshaw, entitled, 'Democratic Control," an attack upon the "Union of Democratic Control" which he characterizes as "the most dangerous of all [organizations] because it is at once powerful and specious, malignant and hypocritical, bold and secretive, and, further, because it is a fruitful parent and lavish foster-parent of other deleterious organizations."

The Failure of Sir Edward Grey," by R. W. SetonWatson ("English Review," February, 1916), is an attack on the military policy of the subject, whose past service, however signal, cannot atone for his long series of blunders.

The "Review of Reviews" furnishes each month to teachers a series of topics and questions which is called 'Teachers' Service." The work in civics and history is conducted by Dr. A. C. Bryan, Head of the History Department of the High School of Commerce, New York City.

"How Much Ohio History Should Be Taught" is a question which is answered by Professor Martzolff, of Ohio University, in the February number of "The Ohio Teacher." The author urges the use of local history work wherever it is possible to use it in illustrating the general history of the country.

An appreciation of a life devoted to the teaching of history is found in the article upon "William George McGuckin," a professor of history in the College of the City of New York. The tribute, accompanied by an excellent portrait of Professor McGuckin, appeared in the Evening Post, Saturday Magazine," for February 12, 1916, and is the work of Dr. J. S. Schapiro, one of Professor McGuckin's colleagues in the City College.

66

Specific Tests versus General Tests of Service and Personality" is the title of a recent issue of "Public Service," published by the Institute for Public Service, 51 Chambers Street, New York City. The leaflet gives a very valuable analysis of specific desirable qualities and specific objectionable qualities for use in estimating the ability of librarians. Almost identical tests could be used for testing the value of history teachers.

Leaflet, No. 40, of the (English) Historical Association is devoted to a bibliography of ancient history. The lists are divided under the following topics: Courses in General Histories of Antiquity, Oriental History, General Greek History, General Roman History, Special periods-Greece, Special periods, Rome, Special Districts, Special Topics, and Reference Books and Periodicals. Copies of the Leaflet can be obtained from Miss M. B. Curran, 22 Russell Square, W. C., London, England.

The present status of history in the State of New York is as follows: The work is based upon the syllabus issued in 1910, with the following changes: (1) that special credit

for notebook work in history is no longer given, although it is recommended that library and notebook work in history be done wherever possible. (2) Special questions on the required readings in the various history courses are no longer given in the examinations; but the other regulations concerning required readings are still in effect, and credit is given for special readings upon certificate.

"The School World" (London) for February, 1916, contains an article by Sir Oliver Lodge, discussing the influence of the war upon education, and urging that the schools take up the arts of peace rather than those of war in the rehabilitation of education which will necessarily follow the war. The same number contains a paper by Alexander Farquharson, which shows the influence of the war upon the teaching of civics. The writer says, "Let mutual service and love-which is its interior motive and reflection-be the Alpha and Omega of civic teaching.”

"The

was

The tenth annual meeting of the (English) Historical Association was held at University College, London, on Friday, January 7 and 8. The topics discussed were: Teaching of Naval and Military History," which treated by Mr. J. S. Corbett, Mr. T. Seccombe, Mr. G. Callendar, Mr. H. W. Hodges, Mr. R. C. Burn, Mr. J. E. Morris, Miss Reid. "The Teaching of Imperial History was the topic of a second session, and the discussion was participated in by Sir Charles P. Lucas, Prof. H. E. Egerton, Mr. G. R. Parkin, Prof. Ramsay Muir, Mr. Sidney Low and Prof. Pollard, and others.

Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (26 Broadway, New York City), has sent to the MAGAZINE a copy of "The Colorado Industrial Plan, containing the scheme for employees' representation or an "industrial constitution;" and the agreement which has been adopted at the Coal and Iron Mines of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. between the company and its employees. The pamphlet also contains a reprint upon "Labor, Capital-Partners" from the "Atlantic Monthly for January, 1916, and two addresses delivered by J. D. Rockefeller, Jr., while in Colorado in October, 1915.

وو

An important article entitled, "Lincoln and Missouri," by Walter B. Stevens, appeared in the "Missouri Historical Review" for January, 1916 (Vol. 10, No. 2). The study occupies over fifty pages of the "Review," and deals with Lincoln's relations to Missouri from 1857 to the time of Lincoln's last letter relating to Missouri which was written on February 20, 1865. The subject is divided into a number of topics, among which are Lincoln and Missouri, 18571860, Lincoln's Nomination, Lincoln and the Blairs, Fremont and Missouri, Compensated Abolishment, Schofield and Missouri, the Missouri Committee of Seventy, and Lincoln's Reconstruction Policy.

The January number of "The Journal of Negro History contains the following articles: "The Negroes of Cincinnati Prior to the Civil War" by Carter G. Woodson; "The Story of Maria Louise Moore and Fannie M. Richards" by W. B. Hartgrove; "The Passing Tradition and the African Civilization" by Monroe N. Work; and "The Mind of the African Negro as reflected in his Proverbs" by A. O. Stafford. There are documents illustrating the negro thought in the eighteenth century and showing the rise of early negro churches in Georgia and the West Indies. Reviews of recent books upon the Negro are also included.

The annual report of the World Peace Foundation (40 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston), shows a year of much activity upon the part of the Foundation. The work among colleges, universities and normal schools was particularly

strong; assistance was given to the development of peace movement in women's clubs and various associations of American women; and the student club movement resulted in strengthening the organization in some places and in the establishment of new clubs in a number of Institutions. Thirty-six student organizations are now associated with the Federation of Clubs. The publications of the Foundation during the year have been of a noteworthy character, bringing together much of the diplomatic correspondence relating to the war.

Our

Henry J. Fletcher, professor of law in the University of Minnesota, has a carefully expressed study of Divided Country" in the "Atlantic" for February The division is largely due to our large immigrant population, and this source of national weakness affects the mobilization of our spiritual forces as well as our physical ones. The remedy for the situation is two-fold: to reverse our policy in regard to naturalization, by withholding it fron the unfit, and cancelling it where it has been unwerthily bestowed; and to mould the youth of foreign ancestry into Americans as soon as possible.

The Texas History Teachers' Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 2, is devoted mainly to the subject of "The Functional Value of High School History." Prof. Frederic Duncalf leads with an article upon this topic, in which he gives as the principal values of history, informational value, the ability to interpret the present through the experience of the past, disciplinary value, and the development of the judgment. Mr. M. L. Arnold, of San Marcos, discussed the possibility of increasing history values by omitting useless memory data. The principal article, however, is by Mr. W. P. Webb, of the Cuero High School, in which he shows how the functional value of history can be increased by the problem method of presentation. His paper will be printed in the HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE in the near future. Prof. Barker contributes brief selections of source readings in Texas history.

The Drama League of America prepared a pamphlet upon "The Shakespearean Tercentenary," containing suggestions for school and college celebrations of the Tercentenary of Shakespeare's death in 1916. Copies of the pamphlet can be obtained from the Drama League, 511 Eleventh Street, N. W., Washington, D. C., for ten cents each, with considerable reduction in price upon quantities. The suggestions comprise various programs for schools adapted for use in the lowest grades of the elementary schools, as well as for high school classes. There are also detailed instructions for other forms of celebration, including "A Shakespearean Festival," "Frolic of the Flowers," "A Normal School Festival," "A Pageant Wagon," and forms of students and faculty co-operation in the school festival. There are also suggestions concerning the treatment of Shakespeare's plays for school purposes, and bibliographical aids in the study and staging of Shakespeare's plays.

Quoting Professor Bourne to the effect that European methods of teaching history should not be transferred mechanically to American practice, the writer of an article in "Philippine Education" for January, 1916, urges a similar

in the teaching of history in the Philippines. "American methods of teaching history should not be transferred mechanically to Philippine practice. . . . What may be suited admirably to the needs of the American may not take sufficient account of the individuality of the Filipino. An adequate method must be the outcome of a careful study of the Filipino pupil or student, and a wise and sympathetic consideration of the benefits which he should derive from his work in history." "In order that

the Filipino pupil may finish his course with a fair acquaintance with his company's past in relation to its present and future, it is desirable that the teacher show the continuous stream of events, working step by step, through the long period of years. The topics should be arranged so as to picture logically the pre-Spanish conditions, the discovery and conquest, the Spanish regime, and the period of American administration." The writer urges the study of typical and significant events in Philippine history in order that the pupils may understand the politi cal, social and industrial world about them. Historic figures like Rizal, Mabini and Luna, and events like the Revolution, furnish ample opportunity for the inculcation of patriotism, a patriotism that does not follow racial lines, but one that is pure, liberal and humanized.

The California Historical Survey Commission was created by an act of the California Legislation Committee, June 12, 1915. The commission is composed of three members appointed by the Governor. The purpose of the commission is to make a survey of materials on local history within the State of California by investigating documents in local depositories and in the possession of private indi viduals. The commission, as appointed, consists of Hon. John S. Davis, Grand President of the Native Sons of the Golden West; Dr. Herbert E. Bolton, Professor of American History in the University of California; Mr. James M. Guinn, Secretary and Curator of the Southern California Historical Society. The commission has appointed Owen C. Coy as secretary and archivist, and has entrusted him with the general supervision of the field work of the commission. An Advisory Committee, composed of persons having experience with dealing with the materials of California history has been appointed as follows: Dr. H. Morse Stephens, Sather Professor of History at the University of California; Dr. Ephraim D. Adams, Professor of History at Stanford University; Rev. Joseph M. Gleason, member of the American Historical Association; Dr. Rockwell D. Hunt, Professor of Economics and History at the Univer sity of Southern California; Mrs. Margaret V. Allen, Secretary of the Pioneer and Historical Society, San Diego; Dr. Charles E. Chapman, Assistant Professor of California History at the University of California; Miss Eudora Garoutte, California Department, State Library, Sacramento; and Mr. Charles B. Turrill, San Francisco. The address of the secretary, Mr. Owen C. Coy, is 2473 Prince Street, Berkeley, Cal.

CONFERENCES ON HISTORY TEACHING.

The Examination Division of the State Education Department of New York is arranging for a series of conferences to be held throughout the State during the spring of 1916. The purpose is to afford an opportunity for the discussion of practical class room problems which arise in the teaching of such subjects. Conferences are held usually on Saturday mornings from 9 to 12 o'clock or later. They are held in different parts of the State, and are open to all principals and teachers of history. The history conferences are in charge of Mr. Avery W. Skinner.

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND OTHER SUBJECTS.

Several conferences were held in London, England, January 5th to 7th, to discuss ways in which history may be taught in conjunction with other subjects in the curriculum. The first conference was with reference to the teaching of European history in connection with modern languages. There was a desire, among the language teach ers, to subordinate history to the language and to have it