when apprehended by imagination's aid and are thus deeply impressed on the mind, but it is also true that only when the imagination is at work are valuable products of history study created; for in the soil of the emotions social sympathy starts and ideals germinate and grow.

Memory also is an element of learning and the very study processes that seek to promote the feeling and full understanding of the truths of history tend to secure their retention in the mind. Yet, though to understand and to feel frequently induce remembering, memory must often be directly and explicitly bidden to perform its part of the learning process, and self-directed drill must be reckoned an element in history-study.

It is plain from these considerations of what it means to learn that the study that is fruitful is both a complex and an effortful process. Of course, the pupil is and should remain happily ignorant of this complexity. Not so his teacher.

Learning requires of the pupil active intellectual effort, in other words, hard work, of which mere reading of the lesson is but the beginning. Hence, there devolves inevitably upon the teacher the twofold responsibility of stimulation and direction of this work. The assertion of William James that the American boy and girl enjoy effort, desire to work, is confirmed in the experience of thousands of teachers. But knowing ones who have observed boys and girls studying history have often seen that they struggle vainly to discover what it is that they are required to learn, and that they fail to set in motion the activities that are essential to learning. Neither motive nor guidance has been adequately supplied, and by motive is not meant fear of penalty. nor ambiton for high grade; there must be provided such invitation to effort, such challenge, such call to come out and fight as the pupil receives from the problem quality of the tasks which his teachers of other subjects set for him, a quality in which explicitness of requirement and definiteness of aim are important elements. It will, then, be a distinct advance in the teaching of history if into the preparation of the lesson real study activities can be introduced, and this can be effectively achieved only by giving the history task in large measure the problem quality.

The educational values of history being many in number and various in kind, the forms of problem will be correspondingly varied. When the training of the judgment or the exercising of the reasoning powers is what the teacher is seeking to secure for his pupils, analysis and organization of the lesson in whole or in part according to a plan supplied, or questions involving comparison, causation, and estimate-as of the value of an historical source-are appropriate forms for the task. When an appreciation of the relation of points of the lesson to facts of other lessons is sought for, the problem should be explicitly directed to that end. Where the topic of study is highly abstract, the problem should be set in such terms as will bring concrete examples into the range of the pupil's thinking; with the unfa

miliar it should involve inquiry into possible analogies with the known; if the topic seems to lack the quality of reality and vitality, the problem should seek to put the human element into it.

The task of the teacher in preparing himself for the giving out of next day's lesson is thus twofold; first, after acquainting himself thoroughly with the content of the material in which the lesson is to be set, he must ask himself, "What are the values in this that my pupils must be sure to acquire?" and, secondly, In what form can I put the task of securing these so that it shall be explicit and as concrete as possible-so that they shall see clearly what is to be done and be stimulated to do it?

By the thought questions and problems, then, of various sorts, which will take shape through this endeavor of the teacher, the pupil will be carried behind the words and induced to think. His reading of the lesson will no longer be an end in itself, but a means to the performance of tasks which the teacher's assignment has made clear and sufficiently alluring. Reading is now the beginning merely of a study process that goes much further into the field of intellectual activity and involves all the faculties of his mind. Thus, it may be brought about that in many more schools than at present, lessons in history shall be "taken as seriously and studied as intelligently before coming to class as those in Latin or in mathematics."

The following tasks set upon a part of the administration of President Monroe may serve as illustrations of some forms of this problem-setting:

What had been Monroe's political career before 1816?

What presidents had heretofore come from Virginia? Account for Virginia's being "the mother ceasing to be. of presidents," and, as Monroe was the last, for her

Account for the decline of party spirit by 1820. In what ways did the new spirit of nationalization express itself during this administration? In 1820 Jefferson wrote, "The judiciary of the United States is the subtle corps of and miners constantly working underground to undermine the foundations of our confederate fabric." What did he mean and what warrant did he have for his statement?

What were the general principles laid down in these

McCulloch versus Maryland,

Fletcher versus Peck,

The Dartmouth College Case?

Give four important instances in previous history of clash of opinion as to the authority of the central government.

Prepare a brief sketch of the history of East and West Florida-1763-1819.

Add to your progressive map the new states admitted in this administration, and the new territory acquired, putting in the new northern boundary line of 1818 and the Cumberland Road.

My object in this paper is to indicate how the functional value of history may be increased by the introduction of a new method of presentation. By this method many of the objections to the study of the subject and difficulties of the teaching of the subject may be partially or wholly eliminated. The plan of the paper divides the treatment into three parts. The first part seeks to show that the present high school methods of presentation are wrong psychologically and behind-hand educationally and historically; the second part takes up the new or problem method, defines and analyzes it, and gives numerous concrete examples of its application; the third and last section summarizes the advantages of the problem method, and seeks to show how it will increase the functional value of the subject.

PART I-PRESENT METHODS.

Psychology teaches us that the mind in its development passes through three more or less well defined stages. The first is that of perception, in which the facts are gathered, in which the material is assembled which is to be used all through later life; the second is a short transitional period. It may be called the period of apperception and imagination. The third and last is the critical stage in which causes are sought and proofs established.

Professor Karl Pearson, in his "Grammar of Science," points out that the sciences have passed through these three stages and that they have arrived only recently at the critical state. In fact, it is held that modern experimental science is itself the third stage of the development of civilization-the critical phase of growth. Mankind in its infancy was perceptive and curious; in youth it was metaphysical and imaginative, soaring far away from the facts which were observed, and reaching conclusions which were unjustified and without proof. In the third period there has been a return to the material world. spun theory has given way to demonstrable facts, and scientific laws have been established on a critical basis. The result has been a tremendous stride in nearly all fields of activity. Pragmatism has supplanted metaphysics in philosophy; critical study has displaced blind and unreasoning faith in religion; and the wonderful discoveries and inventions of the past century are the fruits of the modern experimental method in science.

Fine

Not only is it true in general of the mental development of the individual, and of the historical development of the entire race, that three stages of growth are experienced, but it is true of any particular mental task that we undertake-any study that we pursue. The French scholar, Ribot, in his book

on The Imagination" shows that any mental activity followed to completion takes a triple form, the last of which is critical. He terms the critical imagination the "Scientific imagination," and devotes an entire chapter to it.

To make the example concrete: Suppose you are assigned a paper to write, by introspection you find yourself going through the following activities: First, you gather material, read and take notes, and fill a card catalogue with numerous facts pertaining to your subject. This is the perceptional, the material gathering stage. When your reading is all done, and the facts all at hand, you enter the imaginative stage in which you visualize the method, the place, and the results. You imagine far greater results than you ever attain perhaps. You are somewhat metaphysical. Finally, you come down to pen and paper, and then you must become critical, using this fact, discarding that, keeping only those things that will best serve your purpose. You are now in the final process of selection and rejection, the critical stage.

It is a matter of surprise that this critical phase which is recognized by psychology as the final stage of mental development, which dominates modern philosophy, and constitutes science, should not have been recognized earlier in the study and teaching of history. It has been recognized and used in the study of history, but not in the teaching of school history. The explanation probably lies in the fact that practice lags behind theory.

It was Professor Keatinge of Oxford who pointed out that three stages of history teaching may be distinguished, corresponding to the mental development of the boys. The first period, from seven to twelve years of age, is that of perception and memory on the part of the student, and of presentation and drill on the part of the teacher. This is the preparatory period in which material is gathered. But the eternal gathering of material is uninspiring, and in the end grows irksome; by the time the boy has reached the age of twelve, something more must be added, or else he comes to consider history a drudge. He now enters the secondary stage, i. e., from twelve to thirteen or fourteen. During this period he should be making a transition from the preparatory to the critical stage. He must try to use his information. This is the time for the teacher to arouse interest and excite the imagination. But something more must be given soon, or the boy will come to look on history as a soft snap," interesting enough if the teacher has personality, but unworthy of that serious consideration which the stern subjects of algebra and physics compel. So much for the secondary

stage. The third, or upper secondary stage, may be called, with some apologies, the critical stage of historical growth. It should last from fourteen to the end of high school, and subsequently through life. At this time a new method should be introduced. The method of natural science should be carried over into the field of social science and applied to the study of history. This method of presentation is known as the problem method, and will occupy our attention throughout the remaining pages of the paper.

Before making an analysis and exposition of the problem method, it will be well to indicate the methods now in use, to point out the criticism they are bring ing on the subject of history, and to show that they are not wrong in their place, but merely fall short of the demands of the times.

It is a trite fact that in no field of activity are we such victims of tradition and outworn custom as in the school. Professor David Starr Jordan, in his First Steps of Civilization has said that if we wish to find relics of primitive man, we should consult three sources; viz.: The graves of the dead, institutions of the church, and the customs and habits of woman. He might have added that if we wish to find relics of medieval man, we should consult the school systems. The schools have been exceedingly slow to change from the ancient to the modern. Whereas in medieval time, education was for the chosen few, the priest and the scholar, to-day it is for the many-the laborer and the professional man. Whereas formerly it was an end in itself for a few people; at present it is a means only-for the many, a means without which they can scarcely survive.

School men have at last recognized the demand for the change, and have widened the curriculum to inIclude the sciences and industrial arts. The marked tendency of the present is to introduce those things that function in the life of the student, and to exclude all those things that fail to do so. All know how the classics have suffered. Not a few lovers of Greek and Latin have been alarmed that their subjects are giving away to the less artistic but more practical subjects of agriculture and manual training and domestic science. But the pragmatist in education has said: "Give us something that will work, something that will serve the daily needs of life. Latin and Greek do not function enough. Away with these traditional subjects of the priest and the pedant." And in spite of their claims to practical value as a mental discipline, the classic studies have been relegated to the background somewhat on the charge that they fail to function.

And what of history? Has it, as one of the traditional subjects, escaped the grave charge?

By no means has history escaped. Is history being challenged to-day to show that it has functional value? The answer is an emphatic affirmative. Does history recognize the challenge? If so, is it making any effort to meet the charge? History does recognize that its functional value is being questioned. To prove that it does and to indicate the effort it is making to defend itself, I call your attention to the sub

jects of the papers presented at the recent meeting of the Texas History Teachers' Association, and ask you to note the recurring emphasis placed on the term functional value."

(1) The functional value of high school history from the standpoint of information and discipline. (2) Increasing the functional value of history by omitting the useless memory data.

(3) Increasing the functional value of history by the problem method of presentation.

Why has the charge been preferred against history? ject of intrinsic worth? Not at all, we believe. On Is it because history fails to justify itself as a subthe value of history, Professor Keatinge has well said: "It is not easy to make a brief statement of the advantages to be derived from the study of history. Without some acquaintance with origins no man can understand the civilization into which he is born, and not understanding it, he will take no interest in its Lack of interest in human factors problems. . . .

is a serious deficiency, and its seriousness is especially felt in a modern self-conscious democracy." (Keatinge, "Studies in the Teaching of History," p. 4.) Everyone realizes the truth of this statement. The individual must not only be conscious that problems exist, but he must have definite views on them, views that are based on knowledge, and not on dogmatic belief or traditional prejudices. The citizen of today must solve problems-whether he be ignorant or

He must go to the polls and vote for or against the referendum; he must decide whether we should have high tariff or free trade, when in ignorance of the origin and effect of either. He will boldly criticise the president of a great nation for his action in foreign affairs without one whit of knowledge of international law and custom. He decides that the United States should seize Mexico or should abandon the Monroe Doctrine all in a breath. Surely such responsible action ought to have a rational rather than an emotional guide. And if the voter's action is to be rational, it must be based on knowledge, and not on prejudice, bias, or the inflamed statement of some political demagogue. A knowledge of political and national institutions sufficient to enable the citizen to cast an intelligent vote, means a knowledge of history. Surely the subject justifies itself in our materialistic curriculum on the one ground that it prepares the citizen to be more than a mere "political animal." Again in addition to its worth as a preparation for citizenship, history, as a cultural subject, stands on a par with the classics.

If we admit then that history has in a democracy a practical value equal in importance to science, and a cultural value comparable with the classics, why is it that we are having to make a defense of our subject? If the fault is not in the subject itself, it must lie in the method of presentation-and here seems to rest a part of the blame. Science is experimental and critical, rather than theoretical; philosophy is pragmatic rather than metaphysical and dogmatic. Both of these are in the third stage of their develop

tion, he thrills with the exultation of a mental victory. He is led to the point of reasoning out his own results and conclusions. In the science laboratory he combines two chemicals and observes certain reactions; in the social complex, he sees the birth of a new event, a record of which he has in a contemporary document. What will be the effect of the new member on the social body? How will the other members be affected by the new comer? E. g., gunpowder was discovered; how did it affect medieval conditions, economic, social, military? Printing was invented-what was the social reaction?

"1

So much for the theory of the problem method. A prominent historian of this State, writing of the problem method has said: "Most of the writers on method avoid saying much on any one thing, and particularly are careful to be vague.' In order to escape this charge of vagueness, I am going to present some of my own efforts in the use of the problem method. I have tested it in ancient history in the eighth grade, English history in the tenth grade, and American history in the eleventh grade, and have obtained excellent results in every case.

My plan is to have the students bring their documentary source books to class without telling them what assignment I would make. No problem was assigned, however, that had not been covered fully in class and in text. The problems may be written or oral. If they are to be written each student is provided with slips of paper 4 x 6 inches in size. These slips were procured from a printer at a trifling cost. They have a double value of giving uniformity to the work and of enabling the teacher to look over the results very rapidly. The students are asked to write their own name on one corner of the card and the author's name on the other. I shall take up the work in ancient history first and then proceed to the higher grades. The results are those actually obtained in class.

The first three problems are related to each other, and go to show clearly how the work may be made progressive. The three, taken together, show the historical development of the Athenian Constitution from before the time of Draco, when Athens had a king, until the time of Clisthenes, when she had a pure democracy. The first problem calls for an analysis of the constitution before the time of Draco; the second deals with the rise of democracy through the code of Draco, the reforms of Solon and the reforms of Clisthenes; the third is a study of the motive Clisthenes had in giving citizenship to the common people.

PROBLEM I.

FROM ARISTOTLE'S CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS. From this document the following things were required:

(a) To make out a list of the officers of the Athenian government.

1 Dr. Frederick Duncalf, University of Texas.

(b) To give the duties of each officer. (c) To give a quotation in proof of the statement.

THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS. Aristotle, "Constitution of Athens," Chapter 3 ff. Kenyon's Translation.

Now the ancient constitution as it existed before the time of Draco was organized as follows: The magistrates were elected according to qualifications of birth and wealth. At first they governed for life, but subsequently for terms of ten years. The first magistrates, both in date and importance, were the King, the Polemarch (commander in war), the Archon. The earliest of these offices was that of the King, which existed from ancestral antiquity. To this was added, secondly, the office of Polemarch, on account of some of the Kings proving feeble in war, for which reason Ion was invited to accept the post on an occasion of pressing need. The last of the three offices was that of the Archon, which most authorities state to have come into existence in the time of Medon. Others assign it to the time of Acastus, and adduce as proof the fact that the nine Archons swear to execute their oaths "as in the days of Acastus," which seems to suggest that it was in his reign that the descendants of Codrus retired from the kingship in return for the prerogatives conferred upon the Archon.

Whichever way it be, the difference in date is small, but that it was the last of these magistracies to be created is shown by the fact that the Archon has no part in the ancestral sacrifices, as the King and the Polemarch have, but only in those of later origin. So it is only at a comparatively late date that the office of Archon has become of great importance, by successive accretions of power. The Thesmothetae were appointed many years afterwards, when these offices had already become annual, and the object of their creation was that they might publicly record all legal decisions, and act as guardians of them with a view to executing judgment upon transgressors of the law. Accordingly, their offices alone of those which have been mentioned, were never of more than annual duration.

So far, then, do these magistracies precede all others in point of date. At that time the nine Archons did not all live together. The King occupied the building known as the Bucolium, near the Prytaneum, as may be seen from the fact that even to the present day the marriage of the King's wife to Dionysus takes place there. The Archon lived in the Prytaneum, the Polemarch in the Epilyceum." The latter building was formerly called the Polemarcheum, but after Epilycus, during his term of office as Polemarch, had rebuilt it and fitted it up, it was called the Epilyceum. The Thesmothetae occupied the Thesmotheteum. In the time of Solon, however, they all came together into the Thesmotheteum. They had power to decide cases finally on their own authority, not, as now, merely to hold a preliminary hearing.

The Council of Areopagus had as its constitutionally assigned duty the protection of the laws; but in point of fact it administered the greater and most important part of the government of the state, and inflicted personal punishments and fines summarily upon all who misbehaved themselves. This was the natural consequence of the fact that the Archons were elected under qualifications of birth and wealth, and that the Areopagus was composed of those who served as Archons, for which latter reason the membership of the Areopagus is the only office which has continued to be a life magistracy to the present day.

Here is an example of what was done by one student: