within its borders an English mind; to give all who come within its sway the power to look at the things of man's life, at the past, at the future, from the standpoint of an Englishman; to diffuse within its bounds that high tolerance in religion which has marked this Empire from its foundation; that reverence yet boldness before the mysteriousness of life and death, characteristic of our great poets and our great thinkers; that love of free institutions, that pursuit of ever higher justice and a larger freedom, which, rightly or wrongly, we associate with the temper and character of our race, wherever it is dominant and secure. . . To give all men within its bounds an English mind--that has been the purpose of our Empire in the past. He who speaks of England's greatness speaks of this. Her renown, her glory, it is this, undying, imperishable, in the strictest sense of that word. For if, in some cataclysm of nature, these islands and all that they embrace were overwhelmed and sunk in sea-oblivion, if to-morrow's sun rose upon an Englandless world, still this spirit and this purpose in other lands would fare on untouched amid the wreck."

Lately we have heard of Pan-Americanism. Coit in his Soul of America finds salvation for the world at the hands of the American race. He would have us lay aside all differences of politics and religion to unite in the worship of The American Spirit. DuBois, "The Negro," concludes that the really great elements of our civilization are chiefly of negro origins.

These authors who have striven to set forth PanAmericanism, Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, PanAnglism, are not facetious; they are as serious as their compatriots Beard or Slater. They too err historically in trying to be universal, i.e. philosophic.

Notice that these ideals of historical interpretations are largely of Germanic origins. Taine, the Frenchman, said that all the leading ideas of his day were produced in Germany between 1780 and 1830. The Germans are convinced of this. Their philosopher, Eucken, justifies the part taken by Germany in the world war because the Germans alone do not represent a particularistic and nationalistic spirit, but embody the "Universal" of humanity itself (Kultur). Therein, he utters the conviction of Germany that Germany is in a sense alone of all the nations embodying the essential principle of humanity. Fortunately for humanity Taine's observation is now even less true than at the time of its utterance. All the world does not believe or think in Germanic universals. The United States, long ago (our United States was based upon the ideal of State Rights), and the British Empire, more recently, realized in politics the value of the rights of the individual unit; the truths of many separate ideas. In history a Staatgeist is supplanting Zeitgeist. Books on smaller political units are multiplying: Russel, "The Spirit of England;" McCabe, "The Spirit of Europe;" Smith, "The Soul of Germany;" Coit, "The Soul of America;" Guard, "The Soul of Paris;" Guard, "The Soul of Italy;" Langford, "The Soul of Japan;"

Hamelins, "The Soul of Belgium;" Studer, "The Soul of France;" Sidney Low, The Soul of France;" Aladin," The Soul of Russia." Notice, these titles are geographical, based on concrete, definite, territorial units, not philosophic or ethnic. They reflect a realization of the importance of the individual geographic units in history, i.e. the States.

England recognized this when she granted autonomy to Canada and South Africa, when she granted home-rule to Ireland, and when she began to consider the rights of Wales. You will see the idea reflected in every issue of "The Round Table," "The New Statesman," or "The Nation," The origin and growth of the movement can be studied in Jebb, Studies in Colonial Nationalism;" Lucas, "A Historical Geography of the British Colonies;" Jose, "History of Australasia;" Mulner, "The Nation and the Empire;" and in the works of Goldwin Smith.

The world is no longer running on glittering formulae; it is thinking in terms of its concrete parts. It is thinking hard and it has learned more about these separate units, i.e., its geography, within the past year and a half than it ever before realized. Not only countries, but each community has its individual characteristics which will steadily refuse to take a general stamp. The Ukraine, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Avlona, Alsace-Lorraine, Varennes, or Salonika, each must be treated as a separate or individual entity.

The present mission of the history teacher is to preach national and communal rights as opposed to the tyranny of universals. We need a narrowly local political history but with the local units visaged in the light of their relations to each other; an international study of related units.

In 1908 Langlois and Seignobos wrote in their "Introduction to the Study of History" (p. 47): "It would be hard to find any good reason, or any fact of experience, to prove that a professor of history, or an historian, is so much the better the more he knows of geology, oceanography, climatology, and the whole group of geographical sciences. In fact, it is with some impatience and to no immediate advantage that students of history work through the courses of geography which their curricula force upon them." This cannot be true to one who is trying to reconstruct a living past.

How patently false it appears in the light of our present historical situation. The general public soon realized that one journalist above all others possessed the ability to turn meagre war despatches into real live history. The reason lay in the fact that Frank Simonds has studied the terrain occupied by the contending forces. Admiral A. T. Mahan ("Forces in International Relations ") wrote some time before the "It is the great amount of unexploited raw material in territories politically backward, and now imperfectly possessed by the nominal owners, which at the present moment constitutes the temptation and the impulse to war of European States." J. Holland Rose ("Origins of the War," p. 188) says: "The enlarged and strengthened areopagus of the nations must and will discuss such questions as the excessive

of mankind will, I hope, go forth that they shall acquire, if need be, parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and South Brazil." History, if it is to be of service, must deal with the coal and iron mines of AlsaceLorraine and Morocco, the petroleum fields of Galicia, the Bagdadbahn, the fruits of Africa, the Vosges Mountains, and the Black Forest; it must show the earth as it is, its resources, its peoples, its religions. Geographical knowledge (Erdkunde) for such a study is at hand. Geographers have worked industriously and scientifically for years. Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) began the organization of the chaos of previously observed facts. Carl Ritter (1779-1859) wrote a "Comparative Geography." We Comparative Geography." We have the researches of Wagner, Ratzel and Penck. Elisée Reclus (1830-1905) "L'homme et la terre has related man to his environments. In America we have the works of Davis Huntington, (“The Pulse of Asia" and Civilization and Climate") and Semple ("The Influence of Geographic Environment").

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Geography has broadened its scope since the days of von Humboldt; it has taken as allies, anthropology, geology, archaeology, chemistry, and even history. It has become dynamic; it deals even with man the animal. Some more progressive geography teachers are even now teaching geography from the historical point of view. The older historians scoffed at geography; it was the proud boast of Mommsen that he knew nothing of archaeology and anthropology.

More venturesome historians have already trespassed upon the geographical field with marvelous results. Myres, "Greek Lands and the Greek People" is an epoch marking book for teachers of ancient history. Scarcely less important is Murray, "Lectures on the geography of Greece."

We now can know a great deal more about the Greeks than their historians have told us. Although Athens had to import its foods, Thucydides ignores food supplies and trade routes he is rather intertested in an abstract virtue which very closely resembles the Virtú of Machiavelli. F. E. Cornford has written a very stimulating book, "Thucydides Mythistoricus;" and Grundy, "Thucydides and His Age," gives us an entirely new light on the position taken by Syracuse and Corinth in the Peloponnesian Wars. Thucydides could not even describe a campaign accurately: he was too ignorant of the topography of Greece. Grundy has also illuminated

zew,

into the "Cambridge Mediaeval History" (vol. 1) as an explanation of the Germanic Invasions. RostowGeschichte des Römischen Kolonates," supercedes all earlier works on feudal origins, using as it does the concrete historio-geographical basis rather than a philosophical or a philological. Contrast Rostowzew's method of following land tenure through the various countries, Persia, Egypt, Sicily, Gaul, etc., with the latest highly theoretical and tenuous conjectural method of a Vinogradoff ("Cambridge Mediaeval History," vol. ii, ch. xx.) Vinogradoff finds the origins in kinship. For proof he again cites Tacitus who "speaks of the military array of a tribe

composed of families and kindreds (familiae et propinquitates) "-two words which might quite as readily be translated "slaves" and "neighbors."

When in 1908 Bryce stated that "Thirty or forty years ago the geographical element in history was practically an untrodden field," his statement was practically true, with certain philosophical exceptions. Herder (1744-1803) had stated that "History is geography set in motion," and Kant (1724-1804) had affirmed that "Geography lies at the basis of all history." But since 1908, as we have noted, some historians have entered the field of geography. It is now time for the history teacher to follow: the geographical element in history must be popularized.

A few rather simple methods will enable the history teacher to adapt her courses to the newer form of history. In the first place history must become a study rather than a story or a sequence. Seely wrote ("The Expansion of England," 1883, pp. 174-175): "For in history everything depends upon turning narrative into problems. So long as you think of history as a mere chronological narrative, so long you are in the old literary groove which leads to no trustworthy knowledge, but only to that pompous conventional romancing of which all serious men are tired. Break the drowsy spell of narrative; ask yourself questions; set yourself problems; become an investigator; you will cease to be solemn and begin to be serious." Lose reverence for philosophic formulae, for chronology and for your texts. Many history teachers consider Mommsen more inspired than their Bible. Remember that every author has a bias and that they all make mistakes of judgment, and even of fact. You may study your French Revolution from the epic pages of a Hugo, a Dickens, or an H. Morse Stephens. If you prefer you may take the philosophic "greattheory of a Carlyle, recently repeated in "The Aristocratic Class" work of Madelin. You may follow the Girondists, Taine and Shaler Mathews. Aulard with his disciples, Robinson-Beard, gives you the bourgeoise interpretation; Jaures and Kropotkin set forth the ideals of the proletariat-Jaures from the socialist point of view, Kropotkin from the anarchist. All are good works on the revolution; combined they show you that the teacher and students still have a problem of selection and judgment. Teach pupils that they too must think over the problems raised.

man

Assert the "Home-rule" ideal in the teaching of

history. It is time that the history teacher rebelled against the laying out of courses. Let your iconoclasticism strike at Divine Right College Entrance Boards and Autocratic Courses of Study.

A generation which has read the Wessex novels can appreciate the works of Theocritus. Possibly the Greece of Keats may prove as interesting to students as that of Grote. Arcadia may prove to be more Grecian than the Periclean Age. Substitute Hesiod's "Works and Days" for Thucydides' " Peloponnesian Wars." Read: Homer; Xenophon, "The Economist;" Herodotus, "Daphnis and Chloe;" Aristophanes, Peace, Birds and Acharnians." Pausanias' eighth book (translated by J. G. Frazer, Macmillan) gives a lot of fascinating lore about Arcadia.

Cato, Varro, Columela, Virgil, and Pliny furnish equally interesting geographical material for Roman history (c.f. translations by "A Virginian Farmer "). Dion of Prusa, also called Chrysostom, the Goldenmouthed, of the time of Titus reminds one of the style of Goldsmith, "The Deserted Village."

Even a text will yield rich fruit if gleaned with a geographic rake.

Break the tyranny of chronology. History courses are usually graded according to chronology; with the newest coming last. You might go backwards. William II has suggested this for the German schools (1890): Hitherto the road has led from Thermopylae by way of Canae to Rossback and Bienville. I would lead our youths from Sedan and Gravelotte by way of Leuthen and Rossback back to Mantinea and Thermopylae." Such a chronology will become much more real if you work both ways and all ways at the same time. Constant comparison is necessary to make time real.

Such a method has been tried in certain history laboratories where current periodicals furnish the present day element in the course. Listen to what Arnold Bennet ("Your United States," p. 156-157) says of such a course at Columbia University: "I do believe that I even liked the singular sight of a Chinaman tabulating from the world's press, in the modern-history laboratory, a history of the world day by day. I can hardly conceive a wilder, more fearfully difficult way of trying to acquire the historical sense than this voyaging through hot, fresh newspapers, nor one more probably destined to failure [I should have liked him to see some of the two-monthly résumés which students in this course are obliged to write]; but I liked the enterprise and the originality and the daring of the idea; I liked the disdain of tradition. And, after all, is it weirder than the common traditional method? "I should doubt whether at Harvard modern history is studied through the daily paper-unless perchance it be in Harvard's own daily paper."

Visualize your history. What more is the Gary Plan! There are excellent albums such as Lavisse and Parmentier, "Album historique" (4 vols); and Perrot and Chipiez, "History of Art." Stereoscopic magic lantern slides are easily accessible. Arnold Bennett visited such a lesson and reports: "I saw

geography being taught with the aid of a stereoscopic magic-lantern. After a view of the high street of a village in North Russia had been exposed and explained by a pupil, the teacher said, 'If anybody has any questions to ask, let him stand up.' And the whole class leaped furiously to its feet, blotting out the entire picture with black shadows of craniums and starched pinafores. The whole class might have been famished." Geographical magazines are apt to be of more service than historical ones for the purposes of making history vivid.

Incorporate geography into the history. Usually the text gives a chapter on the geography of a country and then goes off and straightway proceeds to forget that there ever was such a thing as the geography of that particular country. An excellent example of what may be achieved in this line is contained in a recent work of Professor Breasted in his chapter on Egypt in Robinson and Breasted's "Outlines of European History" (vol 1, pp. 17-54). As you voyage up the Nile, the Delta gives you the Old Kingdom with its pyramids and Cairo; the cliff region gives you the Middle Kingdom with its feudalism and feudal nobility; while Thebes stands for the Empire with its splendor and its commerce.

Historical geography should form a constant part of every history course. It corrects conceptions of the Grecian world to learn the extent of geographical knowledge possessed by the present Ionian Greeks. Herodotus knew that Egypt was the Gift of the Nile, that the Ethiopians were black with the heat; he tells of the Ganges, the Sahara, the Niger, of pygmies, crocodiles, and the land of the midnight sun and the hyperboreans. He also had made use of the maps, Periodoi Gês, of the Ionians. He complains that 'he had to laugh when he saw them' and so he would construct one of his own. For an interesting article on this line consult J. L. Myres, "Maps used by Herodotus" in the "Geographical Journal," 1896, pp. 605 ff., and his lecture on Herodotus in Anthropology and the Classics," also Tozer's "History of Ancient Geography." Many students and perhaps some teachers do not realize that the Persia of today is in many ways the Persia of Xerxes; or that Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor have always continued to exist. You cannot teach the English charters to her American colonies properly without seventeenth century maps. Acquire old prints; they form one of the most interesting ways of teaching the former history of such units as Paris, London, Petrograd, New York or Washington.

Schools should possess maps of more varieties. They should be topographical, chorographical, political, physical, tical, physical, geological, orographical, hydrographical, meteorological, ethnological, travel maps, statistical maps, etc., etc. Usually maps are left in the realm of mystery and blind faith; they must be made real to pupils. Black lines are not invading Germans or adventuresome explorers. These lines terminate at just the most interesting point: explorers never get beyond a coast line. To many a student maps do not even convey an impression of direction.

Economics, as thus conceived, is not narrowly the science of getting money, but broadly it is the science of welfare and it is of supreme interest to the individual, the family, the State, and the world at large. Fundamentally economics is the science which shows how individuals, and associations of individuals, can provide their necessary food, clothing and shelter, and whatever else is deemed a proper part of their life.

It will readily be seen that economics is an art and a science. Every person must practice it as an art, and the suggestion is here made that similarly all should study it as a science. Men can scarcely escape some form of economic practice; in all walks and callings they must guide their activities by calculations of supply and demand; they must deal with investments and securities, and reckon on incomes and expenditures. People should be more largely interested in what has been well termed, the backward art of spending money." It should be obvious, though it seems to be little understood, that skill, wisdom and discernment in the consumption of wealth are quite as important to the individual as is his added income, through increased producing power.

As a science, economics offers an educational instrument of first importance. The study is largely informational and it gives information which appeals to those of varying ages and diverse attainments. But more than this, the study is a universalizing or generalizing one which will give valuable lessons in dealing with details and reducing these to a system. From this last aspect of the subject it becomes of large significance to our systems of education. Economic phenomena have so multiplied, and they claim so large a place in present thought that the ability to handle these phenomena and to reduce them to an orderly system is a highly desirable if not a necessary element in present education. Economics properly conceived Economics properly conceived is a statement of the principles which are fundamental to social life. There is a grave present necessity for co-ordinating and applying the great body of social knowledge. Economics as a science seeks to accomplish this.

In determining the worth of economics, we should first consider its value to the individual. In brief this subject teaches men to care for themselves and those directly dependent on them. Economics deals with such fundamentals as returns from labor, employment of capital in profitable production, and investments of savings. If the study did no more than lead men to make provision for their own more distant future, it would be well worth a place in schools which prepare for life. Too often men act like children or savages sacrificing the future larger good for a present slight pleasure. Economics teaches the lesson to the individual of living for the better time to come. The habits which pupils form during their school lives are likely to have large influence on their later experiences. The possibility and the wisdom of small savings, and knowledge of the meaning of savings banks and building and loan associations should be a

trained to understand the meaning of savings will understand that a limited amount set aside each year, not only gives immediate pleasure, but affords a guarantee for future safety.

But this provision for the future goes further than one's saving to protect himself. It teaches that duty which every one owes to posterity to preserve and perpetuate the material blessings with which he has been endowed, so that each generation may rise to a higher plane of living than would be possible if each generation attempted to live for itself alone.

Economics should teach in the next place that the range of occupations commonly termed business are of real service to society, and from its study the business man can be made to feel the responsibility for a larger circle than his immediate family. This branch of knowledge will show that those who are in legitimate forms of business are helping to feed, clothe and shelter their fellows, and thus business will be given its true place in the list of occupations.

The study of economics will make clear, as pointed out by Bishop Newman, that it is no more a sin to make money if men aid their fellows in so doing, than it is to seek honor by similarly attempting to aid their fellows. Such a point of view will give a new notion of success, and it will be found that success is not limited to a few chosen occupations and that, in the best sense of the word, large numbers can succeed. Thus, and only thus, can men who are in the commercial and industrial callings be given a professional attitude toward their work.

Economics will in the next place furnish a largeness of view by which men can recognize the rights of others and see the interdependence of all the factors in the modern industrial system. Class distinctions are the most baneful influence of the present age. Landlords against tenants, employers against employed, capital class against debtors, and other antagonisms threaten the safety of society. Ignorance and selfinterest have led to a partial and prejudiced view on these questions and too largely the condition of our economic system is that of a primitive society in which every man's hand is against his fellow and his fellow's hand is against him. Economics teaches, unmistakably, that labor and capital are not enemies, but friends, and a proper understanding of its lessons will lead the capitalist. to ask not "how little," but "how much can I pay my laborers" and similarly will lead the laborers to ask, not "how little," but "how much can we do for our employer." One half of the ills of our social system would be cured if men could be led to view their fancied differences from the point of view of those whom they are opposing.

The most hopeless philosophy of life which has been enunciated in recent years was that of a millionaire's son, who was reported as saying, that per haps hundreds of common roses, had to be destroyed in order to grow one American beauty, and he applied this reasoning to his conception of success. Suc cess of this sort, or at this price, is the most dismal failure. Those in the schools now are to be the em