A Vital Problem of the Rural High School BY PROFESSOR BEVERLEY W. BOND, JR., PURDUE UNIVERSITY. To a pre-eminent degree the Twentieth Century is an age of reconstruction nor has our educational system escaped the general tendency. From the university to the primary school, the curriculum is being subjected to a constant and searching overhauling to determine how educational ideals may best be secured. New courses are constantly being proposed, while time-honored subjects are being discarded. Much that is valuable has been added, but the modern spirit is casting away much that is worth while. Among the foremost of our educational problems is that of the rural high school. As agricultural interests dominate in the South and the Mississippi Valley, a sensible solution of the many problems of the rural high school is to these sections, especially, a matter of vital importance. should venture an inquiry as to the aim of the rural high schools, supported almost wholly by public funds, the prompt reply would be to provide a body of educated citizens. Such an answer falls short of the entire truth. The real object and justification of these schools is not merely to secure men and women with trained intellects. Rather there is a higher aim: to develop patriotic citizens, possessing a real appreciation of our present evolution as a nation and of our present problems. If one The courses in American history and civics are recognized as the primary means of securing this higher aim. But as administered at present in the rural high school, they are usually far from effective. The situation in Indiana may be considered as typical, certainly of the Mississippi Valley and the South, and perhaps of other rural sections. In Indiana both American history and civics must be offered as electives in high schools. One course in history must be selected. The result of these requirements is by no means satisfactory. Although exact statistics are not obtainable, an extended experience with students who have been prepared in rural districts would justify the assertion that, in Indiana, a large proportion, perhaps a majority, take ancient history, the course offered in the first year of the high school, as the required unit, and then calmly ignore the claims of American history. Civics is probably taught in some sort of fashion to a larger proportion of students. But so far as securing actual results in a real understanding of the past development and present problems of the American nation, neither course is at present satisfactory. Certainly this is not an ideal situation. It may be scarcely fair to fix the entire responsibility upon the orthodox arrangement of courses which first presents the bitterest morsel in 1 Paper read at the annual session of the History Teachers' Section, Mississippi Valley Historical Association, April 27, 1916, at Nashville, Tenn. the shape of ancient history, and thus effectually destroy any further taste for historical study. Still, some cog in our educational machine must have slipped when students in rural high schools so deliberately turn their backs upon American history and civics. To the practical teacher the one course open is to discover and to remove the causes of this situation. But some pessimistic prophet of woe may proclaim that there is no remedy. An exceedingly materialistic age is rapidly crowding American history and civics into the limbo of discarded subjects, along with Greek, Latin, and other relics of a supposedly moss-grown curriculum. Especially in the rural high schools, practical subjects, such as agriculture and domestic science, are forcing to the rear many so-called cultural courses. But is it true that even the practical mind would discard really live courses in American history and civics? For instance, one cannot read intelligently the abounding wealth f printed matter on such a subject as national preparedness without a knowledge of American history, nor can even so practical a subject as conservation be otherwise understood. Neither, in an age of an intense quickening of the national consciousness can we afford to `ignore civics. The real cause of the present decline in these two courses in the rural high school therefore is not due to the subjects themselves, but rather to the method of presentation. It is the dull monotony of the daily grind that too often characterizes instruction in American history and civics that is at the root of the evil. In Indiana, steps have been taken to cope with the situation. Among the provisions of a Vocational School Law passed in 1913, was one to establish either agricultural high schools or courses in agriculture and domestic science in connection with existing rural high schools. As it was feared that these new vocational courses would eclipse American history and civics, the History Section of the Indiana Teachers' Association appointed a committee2 to devise some means of confronting the situation. In co-operation with the State Supervisor of Agricultural Education, the committee investigated the needs of American history and civics in agricultural and rural high schools, and recommended certain modifications in the existing courses. After this report had been submitted to a large number of teachers, many of them outside the State, a final report, embodying the numerous criticisms that had been received, was drawn up. This last report was published as a part of the bulletin that outlines the State requirements for courses in agri 2 See Indiana Department of Public Instruction, Educational Bulletins, Bulletin No. 15, Vocational Series No. 10, Indianapolis, 1915. culture. The State Supervisor of Agricultural Education recommended the suggestions in this final report for adoption by both the agricultural and the rural high schools, especially where the latter established agricultural departments. The conditions found in Indiana and the proposed remedies apply, with only slight modifications, in other rural sections. The failure to secure well trained teachers constitutes a fundamental and an exceedingly difficult problem. Ideally the courses in American history and civics should be given by a college graduate who has specialized in these subjects. This is generally done in urban schools, but the resources of rural districts are usually too small to justify such a custom. Too often teachers of sewing and cooking, or of chemistry and physics, who have a little spare time, are asked to fill up their schedules with civics, and sometimes with American history. The wonder is that such a system has not killed in these schools the entire interest in the subjects. convinced of the necessity for a working reference library. Or perhaps the interest of the neighborhood may be aroused and the money raised by private subscriptions. The need of maps, too, both for the wall and for class-room use must not be overlooked. Lastly, there should be some good historical pictures to lend atmosphere to the classroom. The excellent work of the Virginia Co-operative Educational Association shows what can be accomplished in securing these aids. But suppose a small sum for the historical laboratory has been painfully extracted from the school trustees; Unthe problem of judicious expenditure arises. fortunately the extensive bibliographical lists that proclaim the learning of text-book writers must usually be avoided as pitfalls for the unwary, unless the teacher is protected by a wide and varied experience. In the courses themselves reform is urgently needed. First, the previous preparation of the student should be more generally considered. Usually American history and civics have already been given in the How then is this fundamental problem of securing grades, and upon this foundation the high school trained teachers to be met? The advance of the con- The next problem, that of affording necessary facilities in the form of reference work for these courses, also presents numerous difficulties. Here conditions in rural high schools are woefully deficient, although a slight improvement is being made. The largesses of a Carnegie have not yet been extended to rural districts where often the only available library is the meager collection in the school-house. At the outset it is often difficult to awaken a realization of the necessity for such aids. It is readily conceded that the course in agriculture must have a plot of land for practical demonstrations, or that chemistry needs at least an excuse for a laboratory, if only a few testtubes or a choice collection of bottles filled with highly colored and odoriferous compounds. But there is a widespread belief that for American history and civics the text-book is amply sufficient. This old-fashioned notion must be overcome, and school boards must be teacher should build. Too often these courses constitute merely repetitions with variations and trimmings in the shape of a more extensive assortment of facts and dates. A course of this type repels; it never attracts. Rather there should be a recognition of the increasing maturity of the student, and our high school courses in American history should be fashioned as a second cycle after the German plan. Of utmost importance is the adaptation of the subject matter of the course to the environment of the student. It is a prime pedagogical principle that the familiar should But how may so revolutionary a departure from orthodox standards be carried out? With the present system of uniform text-books, it would seem to be impossible unless we wait until new and probably unsatisfactory texts have edged past the bar of State boards. Such delay is by no means necessary. The changes that are advocated would include merely the purposeful accentuation of certain parts of the present text-books and the use of additional aids, especially reference works and maps. The criticism that the cost would be prohibitory can, and has been met. The report of the Indiana committee gives a list of the necessary references. For American history, the minimum cost, including maps, is only $17.85; for civics $16.30; or a total of $34.15 for the two courses. Surely this small sum is not altogether beyond the financial ability of even the smallest rural school. The training of our boys and girls to a realization of our national development and governmental problems must certainly be worth at least this mini mum. So much for the general modifications to meet the needs of the rural high school. To be more specific, in American history the widespread failure to arouse interest is due, in large measure, to a lack of emphasis upon that which is more familiar and therefore more appealing. The proposed modifications of this course would center around two leading principles; the influence of agricultural forces and the place of the particular section in which the student lives in the development of the nation. For the first, many broad lines of development may be traced out. For example, the important influence of agricultural conditions upon the colonial period should receive atten tion. Next should be noted the conflict between agricultural and commercial interests which was so influential in bringing on the Civil War. The place of agricultural influences in settling and developing the Central West and the Gulf States should also be noted, especially in the rural schools of those sections. Many other instances might be cited of the influence of agricultural forces upon the life of the nation, but those that have been given are typical. Next, stress should be laid upon the influence of the section, and more particularly upon the period of its greatest power. Thus, for New England and the Middle States, the colonial period should be accented; for the Gulf States the years preceding and following the Civil War; and for the Mississippi Valley the eras of exploration, settlement and development. This, too, is the fittest place to bring in whatever of State history is incorporated in the high school curriculum, including especially the place of the State in the life of the nation. For example, in Indiana the Hoosier influence should receive especial attention. By accenting the section and State, the student will be aroused to an interest in the historical development of the nation, a conception that is less familiar and therefore more difficult. In carrying out these suggestions great caution must be observed to avoid a myopic indifference to other sections and interests and to the national development. This constitutes a problem of great difficulty. To emphasize agricultural and sectional influences, and to preserve at the same time a perspective of the whole, is an exceedingly complex, yet not an impossible task. Commercial and other economic and social forces, and the influence of other sections must not be ignored. Nor must the course present piecemeal views of detached bits of history, rather than an organized and systematic conception of a unified development. By great care on the part of the teacher the seemingly impossible may be accomplished, especially with the aid of a reference library. Map work, too, will prove of special help in impressing upon the student physical features, and thus showing the background of economic development. In the civics course, it is difficult at the outset to arouse any great amount of enthusiasm for the national government which is too far removed from the everyday experience of the student. But the administration of the township is a matter of common observation which the student constantly hears discussed in his daily life. Therefore this is the proper point of approach for a civics course in a rural high school, and it is here that the chief emphasis should be laid. It is of little practical use to teach country boys and girls the intricacies of the city commission plan of government, if they are almost wholly ignorant of the problems of their own community. The city and its problems, and the machinery of State and national administration should be understood, but to rural government should be given the greater proportion of the time devoted to the course. Also, the instruction in civics should be of an essentially practical nature. There must be of course a thorough understanding of the theory and structure of government, but in addition, to arouse interest the student should understand its actual operation. In short, only the necessary theory should be given and stress be laid on the actual working of the government. Every boy and girl will take an interest in public affairs if only an effective appeal is made. For this purpose a number of expedients may be employed. A daily paper and a good weekly should be in every school library, so that many of the problems studied in civics may be illustrated in current events. Excellent results in teaching the community ideal have been realized by making out surveys of the township or the county, and by giving the class some practical problem, such as the beautification of the schoolyard, or the planting of trees along the roadside. Debating clubs, also, often prove helpful. In connection with the civics course there should be some instruction in elementary economics. Preferably this should form a separate course, but with an already overcrowded curriculum such a change is must be in connection with the course in civics. Again not very probable. Therefore any work in economics emphasis should be laid upon rural conditions, and this instruction in economics should take up such important and practical problems as local taxation, good roads, and rural credits. In considering city, State and national government, also, economic questions may be discussed as far as time allows. Much of this work may be done in the form of explanations by the teacher, but for the reference work many excellent books are available, and often public reports of great value may be had for the asking. In conclusion, the entire aim of these suggestions is to meet existing conditions and so to adapt the courses in American history and civics to the needs to the rural high school that they may become vitalized, awakening the real interest of the student. By this means it is believed that the threatened encroachment of vocational studies will be met. Moreover, by train ing good citizens, who appreciate the dignity of rural life and its problems, American history and civics may aid in one of the great ends of our agricultural courses, to promote the well-being of our rural communities, and to keep our country boys and girls at home. The College Entrance Examination Board's Questions for 1916 PART I. (Answer two questions only.) 1. What were the relations of the Hebrews with the Assyrians and with the Babylonians? What are the prohibitions enumerated in the Ten Commandments? 2. Write on two of the following men: Cimon, Lysander, Epaminondas, Euripides. 3. Explain the importance of Alexandria in ancient history. 4. Compare the economic problems that confronted Solon with those that confronted the Gracchi. Describe the solutions offered by each. PART II. (Answer two questions only.) 5. Tell how Rome was governed about 50 B. C. 6. Write on two of the following men: Hannibal, Marius, Hadrian, Attila. 7. Describe Cæsar's conquest of Gaul. 8. How did the Roman judges develop the Roman law? Why was it desirable to codify the Roman law? 9. Explain the present meaning and the historical origin of five of the following expressions: Laconic speech, Delphic utterance, Socratic method, sophistry, between Scylla and Charybdis, Fabian policy, Pyrrhic victory. 10. Tell the story of the conquest of Greece by Rome. PART IV. (Required.) 11. Write brief notes on five of the following topics: Pyramids, Greek historians, Council of the Areopagus, Roman slaves, Roman frontier defenses, a Roman house, Corinthian order of architecture. What books, or selections from books, have you read in addition to your textbook on any of these topics, or on any other subjects connected with the course? PART V. (Answer two parts only of question 12.) 12. (a) Mark on map 130b the name and location of five of the following: Chief Corinthian colony. Capital of Lydia. Defeat of Persians by Pausanias. Defeat of the Athenian fleet in 405 B. C. First victory of Alexander in Asia Minor. Site of the Olympic Games. Site of the Trojan War. (b) Mark on map 132b the name and location of five of the following: Last battle of the Punic Wars. First Roman naval victory against the Carthaginians. Chief city of the Etruscans. River separating Cisalpine Gaul from ancient Italy. (c) Mark on map 132b the route of the principal Ro- HISTORY B-MEDIEVAL AND MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY. Two hours. PART I. (Answer one question only.) 1. What were the essential elements of the feudal system? What were the obligations of the feudal vassal to his overlord? 2. Who were the leaders of First and Third Crusades? What was the result of the First Crusade? What were the general effects of the crusades on Europe? 3. What was the Renaissance? Give the names of several men prominent in the Renaissance and state for what each was famous. PART II. (Answer one question only.) 4. What was the origin of the city of Venice, and what were the causes of its long-continued prosperity, and the reasons for its decline? When did the city lose its independence? 5. Give an account of the career of two of the following: Gustavus Adolphus, William the Silent, Peter the Great, Mazarin. 6. If a person had traveled about Europe between the years 1700 and 1715, what famous men, events, and buildings might he have seen? PART III. (Answer two questions only.) 7. What important political events took place in France during the first two years of the French Revolution? 8. Describe the effects of the Franco-Prussian War upon the governments of France and Germany, and upon Italy. 9. What have been the successive European powers which since 1500 have controlled the territory known as Belgium? State briefly the causes of the change of control in each case. 10. Discuss the importance of sea-power in the Mediterranean, and give two or more cases to illustrate your 11. Write brief notes on six of the following: Great Schism, Salic Law, Edict of Nantes, the Continental System, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Rossbach, Rousseau, Young Turks. What books, or selections from books, have you read in addition to your textbook on any of these topics, or on any other subjects connected with the course? PART V. (Answer two parts only of question 12.) 12. (a) Mark on map 132b the name and location of five of the following towns: Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Pavia, Trieste, Turin. (b) Mark on map 111b the name and location of five of the following: Avignon, Brittany, Moselle, Navarre, Normandy, Orleans. (c) Mark on map 111b the name and location of five of the following: Alsace, Antwerp, Carpathians, Dunkirk, Belgrade, Silesia. HISTORY C-ENGLISH HISTORY. In each answer give dates. Two hours. PART I. (Answer one question only.) 1. Describe the development of Parliament, both as to composition and powers, until the reign of Richard II. 2. On what occasions between 1066 and 1453 did a foreign army contend on English soil, and an English army on foreign soil? PART II. (Answer two questions only.) 3. Write on two of the following persons: John Wyclif, Thomas Wentworth, John Milton, John Wesley, Robert Clive, Florence Nightingale. 4. Describe the agricultural organization of a medieval English manor. 5. What motives led Englishmen into the great colonization movement of the seventeenth century? What contributed to the success of this movement? 6. Describe the conflicts with the Papacy which took place in England before the time of Henry VIII. PART III. (Answer one question only.) 7. How did Henry VII strengthen the royal power? Explain, by giving definite examples, how far his work was undone later. 8. What was the religious settlement which Elizabeth established? Name and distinguish carefully the religious groups within a century after her accession who were dissatisfied with this settlement. 9. What of permanent value did Oliver Cromwell accomplish for England both in foreign and domestic affairs? PART IV. (Answer one question only.) 10. Describe the development of the British attitude toward colonies during the last hundred years. Give examples to illustrate your answer. 11. Discuss England's policy toward Turkey since the Crimean War. 12. What did Gladstone accomplish in his various ministries? PART V. (Required.) 13. Write brief notes on five of the following: Norman architecture, Common Law and Canon Law, The Instrument of Government, Craft Gilds, The Peace of Utrecht, Transvaal. What books, or selections from books, have you read in addition to the textbook on any of these topics, or on any other subjects connected with the course? PART VI. (Answer two parts only of question 14.) 14. (a) Mark on map 121b the name and boundary of five of the following counties: Cornwall, Devon, Kent, Middlesex, Oxford, Norfolk, Lancashire, York. (b) Mark on map 123b the name and location of five of PART I. (Answer two questions only.) 1. Describe the part played in the history of Virginia by two of her leaders before 1783. 2. Explain the hostility of Charles II to Massachusetts Bay colony which led to the loss of its charter in 1684. 3. Describe the commercial policy of England toward her colonies before 1760. What were the advantages and disadvantages of this policy? 4. Explain the slow growth of the Dutch colony, New Netherlands, and describe the effort made to increase the population. PART II. (Answer two questions only.) 5. What was the part played in the financial history of the United States by Alexander Hamilton and Andrew Jackson? 6. What were the important results of the War of 1812? What measures passed by Congress at its close and shortly afterward indicate that the war had awakened a national consciousness?" 7. In what elections was Henry Clay a candidate for the presidency? State the issues, the names of the rival candidates, and the results in each, explaining fully the reasons for his defeat in the last election in which he was a candidate. 8. Name six Secretaries of State, and tell under what President each served. Give an outline of the services of two of them as Secretaries. PART III. (Answer one question only.) 9. What were the leading political issues in two presidential campaigns since 1864? 10. Explain the difference between making a treaty and resorting to arbitration. Give the provisions of two treaties and two arbitration settlements since the Civil War. 11. Give the provisions of two laws in the enactment of which John Sherman played an important part. PART IV. (Answer one question only.) 12. Discuss the influence of the decisions of John Marshall upon the development of the powers of the national government, giving definite cases to illustrate your points. 13. Mention at least two cases of political opposition to the Supreme Court of the United States, and explain fully the nature of the opposition in each case. 14. Discuss fully the powers of the President in foreign affairs. What is the part of the Senate in foreign affairs? PART V. (Answer one part only of question 15.) 15. (a) Trace on map 195b the progress of Washington's army from the Battle of Brooklyn Heights to the beginning of the siege of New York in 1778. Indicate clearly the name and location of the principal battles and places connected with this progress. (b) Mark on map 176b as definitely as possible four of COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION-HISTORY. Three hours. Selecting one of the five divisions, answer fully six questions as there required. Take about two hours of your time for these six questions. If you have studied in your school course only one of |