twelfth century, it had already acquired a certain degree of celebrity; and that, its oldest written documents bear the dates of the years 1180, 1200 and 1206.

This university had already obtained many privileges, both from Lewis VII. and his son, Philip Augustus, as well as the right to draw up its own legislation. The rector, chosen by the superiors, (Procuratores of the Four Nations, whereof the French had three votes, and the other only one,) from among the Doctors of the faculty of Theology, presided over all, but more especially over the legislation of the university. The Four Procuratores of the Nations, besides the principal ecclesiastics of the faculties, united themselves to the rector, and thus formed a senate, when any subject required a consultation.

Differing thus widely from the Italian universities-founded on a republican soil, and developing themselves under the influence of the republican spirit— the University of France, where the monarchical principle reigned-must have ever felt the influence of the king, and his delegates; but above all, that of the archbishop of Paris. The rectorship was, in the beginning, renewed monthly, and afterwards, quarterly.

The four faculties were, in course of time, organized; and, under their superiors and deans, extended their influence over the whole organization of the university, in those questions especially, which concerned the sciences, viz. promotions, controversies, repetitions, and the inspection of the colleges.

The classification of students, according to the nations they belonged to, prevailed however, during this whole period; and we shall further on, find this same custom observed, in the beginning of the German universities. The French university, moreover, as well as the German ones, at a later period, formed in some measure, a town, for there was comprised under its jurisdiction, not only the professors and students, but all those connected with them; besides the clerks, servants, bookbinders, apothecaries, and the many teachers of the preparatory schools.

It is unnecessary to continue the history of the University of Paris, inasmuch as this has already been given in this work. In giving that of the German universities, it will sometimes be important to refer occasionally to that of the University of Paris.*

History of the German Universities.

We may divide the history of these universities into three periods. The first, from the foundation of the universities, to the Reformation, in 1517. The second, from the Reformation, till the Peace of Westphalia, in 1698. The third, from the Peace of Westphalia, down to our times.

First Period-down to the Reformation.

Germany possessed no universities till the middle of the fourteenth century. Before that epoch, students resorted to Italy and France. Italy was much frequented during the time when the Hohenstaufen dynasty filled the Imperial throne. After the fall of the Hohenstaufens, when the intercourse with Italy began to slacken, not only Theological and Philosophical, but also all the other faculties were flourishing in Paris; and as other universities, besides this one, were organized in France, the German students resorted to that country. Hence we shall not be surprised to see the universities of Germany naturally

*For the history of the oldest universities of Europe, the following works should particularly be consulted. Savigny's History of the Roman Law during the Middle Age. Edition of 1834-Bulaeus: Historia Universitatis Parisiensis a Carolo Magno, usque, ad hæc tempora. Vol I. to VI Paris, 1665. 1673Crevier's Histoire de l'Université de Paris.-Miener's History of the Creation and Developement of the High-Schools of the Eastern Hemisphere. Gottingen. 1807. Vol. I. to IV.

organized on the model of that of Paris. The universities in this predicament, are briefly, as follows, viz.

1. PRAGUE was founded by the king of Bohemia, and Roman Emperor, who reigned from the year 1347 to 1378. He was a well-educated and learned man, had studied in Paris; and had acquired great knowledge in history, and in the law, whilst in Italy. From his very youth, he had projected the foundation of a university in Bohemia, which he executed soon after his accession to the crown. He had already, in the beginning of the year 1347, received from Clement VI. the authorization to that purpose, and in the month of April of the following year, 1348, he issued directions for the foundation.

From this time, down to the Reformation, we shall see, that the papal authorization was indispensable for the like foundations; the professors and the students being considered as ecclesiastics, the organization rested on a spiritual basis; and, in short, all that related to the sciences and to education, seemed to be in connection with the clergy.

The popes, during this whole period, particularly distinguished themselves as patrons of learning. Teachers and scholars were invited from all parts of the world to this university (Prague) under promise of great immunities and advantages, and in a short time, the latter amounted to one thousand.

Students from Germany and the neighboring nations particularly resorted to this foundation, and Prague rose up, as the first Imperial University, and the first studium generale, in Germany.

This foundation's proceeding, however, from a prince, who undertook the entire care of its organization and preservation, was a circumstance which gave it, as well as to all the subsequent German universities, a character entirely different from that of the older universities; although, the former enjoyed the amplest immunities and freedom.

The first lecturers were invited from Paris, and were the following, viz.

All the above, with the exception of Jenko, (who had been a teacher in Bologna,) had previously taught in Paris.

Carcellarini, having had the principal part in drawing up the statutes of the university, obtained the rectorship; and the archbishop of Prague, being Car

cellarini's perpetuus, this latter often assumed great power, in that town especially.

The University of Prague, as well as all the later German universities, having been founded, either by the monarch or by the magistrates, it was naturally incumbent on them, to settle the means of supporting those establishments, before either foundation or organization took place; and this was the reason, why the later universities possessed a much greater degree of security and stability than the earlier establishments; which, in every case, were created by the assembling of scholars at the place of residence of celebrated lecturers.

From this latter circumstance, and from the remoteness of Paris, the number of lecturers and scholars became so multiplied, that the average number, in the first years amounted to 500; and in the year 1378, at the death of Charles IV., to 700. In the reign of the emperor Wenzel, the number of students is said to have amounted to the fabulous number of 40,000!

Charles IV. granted the University of Prague lands, libraries, and expensive movables; founded stipends in favor of poor students, and elected professors with a fixed salary. Besides this, he founded, for the promotion of learning, especially of theology, (which predominated at this university,) and of philosophy, the Collegium Carolinum, in the year 1366, after the model of that of Paris. Twelve teachers attached to the university; two theologians and ten teachers of philosophy, lived together in the same house, where they gave public lectures, for which they received a fixed salary; whilst the isolated professors lived entirely on the salary (pastus) paid them by their pupils. No students, however, resided in this college, which circumstance distinguished it from the Sorbonne, at Paris, and the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.

The two theologians, being considered as the heads of this establishment, the ten teachers of philosophy were in some measure dependent on them. Two other smaller colleges were opened at a later period.

Wenzel also founded several establishments, where the professors and students dwelt together, and the former superintended the morals as well as the studies of the latter. These directors were named, præpositi.

The bursen (Bigoa,) were establishments of the same kind; houses, in which the students and the different baccalaureats, under the inspection of the rector bursæ, lived and ate in common.

In Prague, Vienna, &c. particular quarters of the town had, before this latter mode, been assigned as the residence of the students, in order to obviate the inconveniences arising from their being too widely disseminated. Each separate lodging was, previously to its being occupied, rated according to its worth, by commissions, appointed for that purpose.

The above mentioned bursen were later organized, which circumstance contributed to strengthen still more the connection already existing among the students, and besides this, to bring them more under the inspection of the professors and superiors.

Great depravity and immorality, however, pervaded all the universities, in the course of the fifteenth century. The above organization, therefore, was a very prudential measure, as those disorders had, earlier, caused very repeated and serious feuds and warfare between the burghers and the students, particularly at the Italian universities, as well as at that in Paris.

The division of the universities into national sections, was also a very important object. This organization prevailed in the oldest universities, and was also a characteristic of the first German establishments of the kind. The division into Faculties, thereby nearly fell into disuse.

As students from all the nations of Europe resorted to the universities, and as the admission to such corporations remained entirely free, it was therefore quite natural, that the students, in consequence of the organization into faculties, did not form a compact, collective and dependent body, subjected to their superiors, as they do at present; but had a share in the jurisdiction themselves. The most natural arrangement therefore was, that all the individuals, belonging to the same nation, should be classed together, without regard to the particular branches of science which they severally pursued; which branches, not being as yet so isolated as they were at a later period, had not acquired any

This was more particularly

influence in the jurisdiction of the universities. the case in Paris, whence this organization went over to the two oldest universities in Germany, Prague and Vienna.

Thus, at Prague, the professors and students were divided by the founder, into the Bohemian, Bavarian, Polish and Saxon "Nations." Those Nations which were situated on the frontiers of the above mentioned, were included under the same name. Thence the following classification, viz.

A procurator, elected by each "Nation," separately governed it, and was subjected only to the rector of the university, and to the highest earthly powers. He moreover enjoyed a very great influence among his countrymen, and made good use of it, both in the government of his constituents and in the election of the rector, whose counsellor he also was.

These procuratores provided the assemblies of their isolated countrymen, kept their seals and statutes, and were, in the fullest extent of the expression, the chiefs of those national corporations.

The privileges which these promiscuous nations began to enjoy, soon, however, produced dangerous symptoms of discord, and Prague thereby lost the high consideration, which it had before enjoyed.

The three Germanic nations, (the Poles, composed mostly of Silesians, adhered to the Germans,) completely oppressed the Bohemians, especially in the public legal judgments; at the elections of the Rectors and Deans; by possessing themselves of the stipends destined for the poorer students; by invading the Bursen; and by exercising against them many other kinds of oppression.

Wenzel, to whom both the Bohemian and Germanic nations applied at the same time, decided, after some hesitation, that the proportion of votes in the elections should now be reversed; that the Germans should in future have but one vote, and the Bohemians three. The Germans hereupon insisted on the preservation of the statute of Charles IV., and as they could not obtain their wish, the greater number withdrew from the university in the year 1408.

Thus ended the flourishing period of the University of Prague, at the time when Huss, and Jerome of Prague, and Stieckna, who all three had brought the foundation to the highest splendor, were still in existence.

The dangers attending the earliest organization of the universities had very often been acknowledged, in Paris, as well as in the German foundations, with the exception of Leipzig (which was founded by a colony from Prague) and Frankfort on the Oder, where those statutes preserved no great degree of influence; and although they prevailed generally at this period, no further mention is made of them.

The second division into faculties under the superintendence of deans legally chosen, was more natural in regard to the smaller establishments in the interior of the country, and in the vicinity of the greater universities. By this means, the whole power was vested in the academical senate, presided over by the Rector; the influence of the students being, moreover, effectually destroyed by the right which government enjoyed of electing the Rector.

Dissensions, however, having soon broken out between the chancellor, the

archbishop of Prague, and the Rector, seconded by the colleges of professors, two protectors (Conservatores) were created by the sovereign, and received the mission to defend the privileges of the university, and to interpose their authority, in case of contention.

The Rector of Prague was chosen every six months, the election being made by the four Procurators of the four nations, and the last Rector, (Rector Antiquus.) The rectorship, however, so early as the year 1360, was prolonged to one year.

All the regular professors, (magistri actu,) had a right to the reversion of the rectorship.

The chief duties of the Rector were: the legal administration of the university; the management of the income, in which latter occupation he was aided by the deans, and especially by the collectores seu receptores pecuniarum facultatis, besides two assessores. He had also to continue the annales seu libri facultatis et universitatis; and lastly, to preside in the weekly assemblies of the faculties. It was requisite that he should be twenty-five years of age, unmarried, and in religious orders; as a learned man, and a divine, were synonymous terms, at the time we are speaking of.

When the universities, as self-subsisting and privileged corporations, gradually slackened more and more their dependence on every other secular and spiritual authority, and acknowledged no other supremacy but that of the prince and magistrates, their power, that especially of the executive Rector, became exorbitant, above all, from their being in possession of civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Rector's perquisites were, however, not very considerable in the beginning; although part of the entrance-fees, and of the fines, fell to his share. The choice of the dean, as president of the isolated faculties, took place likewise, every six months only; his business was to inspect all the transactions of the isolated faculties; to superintend the lectures, as well as the application of the students; he also conducted the controversies, and granted the promotions to academical dignities, in his branch of science; and lastly, presided in the sittings of the faculty.

As each faculty, from the very foundation of the university, had its own particular statutes, the Rector not only created the jurisdiction relative to all that was connected with the isolated faculties, but also enforced it, above all in regard to the punishments incurred by disciplinary infractions.

The division into faculties soon became the prevailing organization, more especially in the universities established at succeeding epochs. The faculties themselves were moreover liable to distinctions and precedence.

Thus, theology prevailed at Prague; philosophy, on the contrary, enjoyed the precedence in Heidelberg.

As to what concerns the academic degrees, we shall briefly remark, that there were three of them in every single faculty-1. the bacalaureat: 2. the licentiat: 3. the magisterium, (afterwards doctorat.) The magistri, moreover, were divided into magistri actu regentes, and magistri non regentes, distinctions which related particularly to the capacity to be elected to the rectorship, and to enjoy other privileges in the respective faculties.

The course of studies, as well as the duration thereof, being strictly laid down in the statutes of the university, the candidate for the latter degree above mentioned, was obliged to afford proofs of the requisite knowledge, and to subject himself to an examination, after which, if successful, he obtained the academical distinction which he sought, together with its privileges, and the insignia thereto belonging. In this fixed and regular order, and in the many formalities observed by the candidates, we may clearly perceive the moderation and sobriety which characterized the tribes of the middle age.

No great progress, however, was made in science until a new spirit pervaded the learning of the age, by the study of the ancient classical literature; as, before that period, theology and philosophy had groaned in the fetters of the antiquated scholastic system, which had been imported into Prague, from Paris, its principal seat.

We must, however, not pass in silence, that Charles IV., when he founded the university, had created a magister biblicus; and that already towards the