and accurate memorization with the placing of all facts in their proper relation to others. The teacher begins a summary of the general topic to be covered, but pauses when he reaches the name, date, or other element which he wishes the pupils to furnish. As soon as some one gives it correctly, he goes on with his summary; but if it be given wrong, he waits until some one thinks of the right response and supplies it. After a little practice such a review and quiz may be made very brisk, enjoyable and worth while.

5. Map-drills should always precede the study of new lands and periods. The permanent painted outline map, so necessary a part of the equipment of the history-room, comes into use at a second's notice for a quick pointing-exercise, for drawing in lines or locating places, for showing the geographic relation of events.

6. Tabulation offers a concise and accurate means of reviewing and fixing certain sets of facts. The chalk-lines on the board, or the hektographed lines on pieces of paper, should be prepared before the recitation begins, that no class time be lost in mere mechanical preparation. There are many ways, of course, of filling in the spaces; with younger children the exercise will usually become a game.

IV. Dramatization. The acting of historic events is a means of making them subjective, of learning the fact by a simulated personal experience. It is a mode of instruction which appeals to pupils of all ages, but in widely variant forms. Little children love to enact dramatic episodes with spontaneous invention of lines and business"; grown-ups like to organize elaborate pageants. In the middle grades dramatization usually takes the form of simple plays which follow the events of the periods studied, although sometimes a divergence is made for an interesting anniversary in local history or national affairs. This gives several types of lessons connected with dramatization; the simple enactment of incidents without previous preparation, an entirely impromptu affair, which adds vividness and value to the primary teacher's story; the careful planning of a simple drama by pupils somewhat older, with the exercise of writing it, correcting it, and preparing it for presentation; the more elaborate preparations incident to the presentation of an historical play or pageant, which include a study of costume, sources which furnish detail for action, and the principles of dramatic presentation and play technique.

In all of these lessons the peculiar value of the dramatic presentation of history may be realizedthe stimulus to imaging imposed by the necessity of reproducing the scenes of the play; the vividness, which gives to the events concerned an initial hold on memory; and the repetition involved in practice, which further fixes these events, in their proper sequence, in memory. There are incidental values of initiative developed and powers of expression increased, of course. It is a good way of utilizing the play-instinct of children. The method becomes less practicable for every-day use as children grow older,

and self-consciousness becomes greater; it should be used mainly in the lower grades, as the forms which appeal to older children, and especialy to adolescents, are too elaborate for class-room use.

There are, in every expression-exercise, the two elements of stimulus and response. The teacher furnishes the stimulus, the pupil the response, and the ratio of response to stimulus is the measure of the pupil's mastery of the subject assigned. If the teacher asks detailed or leading questions, and receives disjointed, poverty-stricken replies, the pupil is plainly acquiring no very adequate picture of past events, nor is he placing such pictures as he does acquire in their proper relation to other scraps of knowledge he may have. In all of these recitations, however, the teacher decides the units for consideration, directs their arrangement, and guides their synthetizing into the final impression of the lesson. The pupil's attitude is responsive. He has learned facts, he has expressed them, he may even have used a high degree of judgment in comparing and evaluating them, and in arriving at conclusions. But he has not taken the initiative in organizing the whole lesson as a unit; his work has not been constructive in the highest possible degree.

Doctor Tryon has called attention to two types of recitation which do involve a greater degree of initiative than any so far noted, types which are therefore extremely valuable and which mark the ideal toward which history instruction should tend, because they do carry the pupil across the line which separates merely responsive thinking from that which is actively constructive.

V. The Individual Recitation is a helpful device for occasional use. One pupil is asked to recite a whole lesson, without suggestion of any kind from the teacher; he is to give outline, details, and summary. The recital may be considered a class exercise, or the other students may be set at some other work. The possibility of being called upon to organize and lecture upon the content of one whole day's work is a stimulating one; indeed, it is doubtful if pupils gain a conception of the lesson as a unit in many cases, without the urge of such a responsibility. It is the best antidote known for the fragmentary, passive learning of facts which passes with too many pupils for the learning of lessons. It goes an important step beyond the preparation for making right response to a stimulus furnished from without; it secures a positive, constructive organization of the lesson-unit and then its enrichment by associated details. Its use is not limited, as one might suppose, to upper grades and high schools; it may be used all along the line of history teaching.

VI. The Voluntary Contribution. type of lesson gives splendid results where the teacher and pupils are capable of using it. A chairman and secretary are appointed or elected, who preside over and keep a record of the day's work, while the teacher is left free to grade the quality of the work and note the completeness of the subjective history-construction achieved by his students. The various parts of the lesson are considered "business of the day," and brought up voluntarily by the members of the class, who usually follow a brief outline of the topics in the lesson which they have prepared before class, in bringing up and discussing these elements. The chairman recognizes students who have risen to recite, and who indicate in this way a wish to carry on the lesson discussion. When a mistake is made the desire to correct it is made known in the same way; sometimes a number are on their feet at once, carrying on a lively discussion. The arrangement of topics is left to the students, but faulty arrangement is criticized in such a way as to lead to more logical sequence in the next exercise. Summarization at the end of the lesson is also in the hands of the pupils.

Teachers introducing this method find it best themselves to preside until some skill is attained by the class in recitation conduct upon their own responsibility; and some will find it best to continue to preside, as this leaves every student free to think of the lesson content. The characteristic thing in this lesson

type is that the teacher leaves the direction of expression to his pupils, who are therefore forced to project a sequence of topics and to build up by their own contributions the completed content of the lesson. It combines maximally individual initiative in thinking with social co-operation in construction, and so gives exercise in a very high type of training for good citizenship.

ments or events; or as general truths learned by observation are applied to historical situations.

In the inductive lesson the forming of generalizations is attempted. Perhaps the best form is the symposium lesson, in which special problems are assigned to different members of the class, who bring their discoveries and conclusions to the recitation, where they are presented and listed (usually on the board), and then used to form a generalization, which is recorded for future use.

Since the healthy reaction from the period of forced rationalism in teaching has set in, these last types of lessons have been less emphasized than formerly. We are coming to realize how large a part habit-formation, imitation, and the influence of ideals and prejudices take in the educative process. Used wisely and combined judicially with other methods, however, the reasoning-types have their own valuable place in the scheme of teaching methods.

Of course, no teacher will use any one method exclusively, nor often without an admixture of other methods. There are few learning-lessons which do not involve some review of points already established, and few expression-lessons in which questions asked teacher or classmate do not call forth information new to the questioner, thus adding to his history equipment. It is believed, however, that a clear idea of the distinct characteristics of the fourteen types of lessons, with their functions in achieving the final result desired, will add variety and effectiveness to instruction, and will stimulate inquiry as to the efficiency of methods now in use.

There remains to be considered the third group of lessons, in which the students pass from the expression of what they already know to the gaining of new knowledge through processes of inductive or deductive reasoning. The simplest form of deductive lesson is that in which the teacher furnishes an outline of the lesson content, which is filled in by the students in either an oral or a written exercise. This type of lesson is especially useful in schools in which pupils have not learned to brief and arrange topics, since it enables teachers to give training in this art while proceeding with the regular work. The outline is usually put upon the board, although it may be dictated as part of the assignment or developed by questioning the class; then details are furnished by pupils and relations developed by discussion.

Pupil Constructive

III. DEVELOPMENT GROUP.

history. Deductive reasoning is called into play constantly as facts already learned are cited in the sur

Inductive

mising of probable results of newly-studied move

THE MAKING OF A BOок.

Introduction. (Speaker not in costume.)

We are presenting to you to-day a sketch called "The Making of a Book." The scene is laid in the scriptorium, or writing room, of the Abbey of Tours in France, in the time of Charlemagne. Alcuin, of York, who came from England to help organize the palace schools for Charles, became abbot of this monastery in his later years, and continued to exercise great influence in religious and educational affairs.

The speeches are most of them direct quotations from the men of this time, and the words and music of the song were written as early as the eighth century. We have endeavored to suggest the costumes of the period, but must leave wholly to your imagination the low-ceiled room, panelled in dark wood. It is fitted with acomries, or shelved cupboards for the books. with tables, and with high-backed wooden benches of the simplest workmanship.

(Costumes. The Monks: Loose brown robes, belted, but without girdles, sandals. The Ladies: Barbara, simple white gown, belted at the hips with a gold band, deep red cloak edged with gold (really only a wide scarf or plaid), white covering on head, hair braided in two long braids on either shoulder. Gisela, similar costume, but dark plaid drawn over head, instead of white drapery.)

THE MAKING OF A Bоок.

THE ABBOT, ALCUIN.
OTHER MONKS.

FULRAD.

ANGILBERT.

THEODORE.

RABANUS.

BARBARA.

GISELA.

The Scriptorium, or writing-room, in the abbey at Tours. Enter the Abbot and Monks. (Hands uplifted.)

The Abbot (slowly). Vouchsafe, O Lord, to bless this work-room of thy servants, that all which they write herein may be comprehended by their intelligence and realized by their works.

(Turning to Fulrad.) Hast there, my brother Fulrad, a good sheep-skin on which our youngest brother may learn to write?

Fulrad. It is here, father. This is smooth and

firm.

Abbot. Take thy place beside Brother Fulrad, my

son, that he may continue thy instruction. Apply thyself well, for what saith the wise Cassiodorus?

Man may fill his mind with the Scriptures while copying the sayings of the Lord; with his fingers he gives life to men and arms against the wiles of the devil. As the antiquarius copies the words of Christ, so many wounds does he inflict upon Satan. What he writes in his cell will be scattered far and wide. Man multiplies the words of Heaven, and the three fingers of his right hand are made to express the utterances of the Trinity."

(He seats himself and begins to study a roll.) Fulrad. Hast thou a strong, smooth feather for thy

pen?

Rabanus. Aye, the feather of a crane, and sharpened as thou didst teach me yester morn.

Fulrad. Now, that is well. What hast thou written there?

Rabanus. I have copied the instructions placed by our father Alcuin over the door of this room. Fulrad. Read them.

Rabanus (reads). "Here let the scribes sit who copy out the words of the Divine Law, and likewise the hallowed sayings of the holy fathers. Let them beware of interspersing their own frivolities in the words they copy, nor let a trifler's hand make mistakes through haste. Let them earnestly seek out for themselves correctly-written books to transcribe, that the flying pen may speed along the right path. Let them distinguish the proper sense by semi-colons and by comas (what is a semi-colon, brother?).

Fulrad. It is a dot, with a tail added, thus. Rabanus (continuing).. And let them set the points each one in its due place, and let not him who reads the words to them either read falsely or pause suddenly. It is a noble work to write out holy books, nor shall the scribe fail of his due reward. Writing books is better than planting vines, for he who plants a vine serves his body, but he who writes a book serves his soul."

Fulrad. Excellently read. And thou wilt understand and remember? Books, and especially those of St. Augustine, are esteemed by us as more precious than gold. And, indeed, the copyist hath his reward. There was once a worldly and sinful brother, who notwithstanding his frivolities was a zealous scribe, and who had in industrious moments written out an enormous volume of religious instruction. When he died, the devil claimed his soul. The angels, however, brought before the throne of judgment the great book, and for each letter therein written, pardon was given for one sin, and behold, when the count was completed, there was one letter over. And it was a very big book. Therefore judgment was given that his soul should be permitted again to enter his body, that he might go through a period of penance upon earth, but in the end be saved.

Theodore (who has been painting busily). And hast thou heard that in the monastery of Wedinghausen in Westphalia there was a scribe named Richard, a Saxon, who spent many years in adding to the library of that institution? Twenty years after his death, when the rest of his body had crumbled into dust, the right hand, with which this holy work had been accomplished, was found intact, and has since been preserved under the altar as a holy relic?

Rabanus. Wonderful!

Fulrad. Two hours each day must we write, at the very least, according to the Rule of the blessed St. Benedict. Sometimes we may talk, as to-day, or one reads for us to copy, but sometimes for our souls' good we work in silence, and then no man may speak, unless he would do penance after. Then, if thou desirest a book, extend thy hand, thus, making motions similar to those in turning the leaves. If it be a pagan work, however, scratch thine ear as a dog doth, for unbelievers be but as dogs. But come now, to thy letters. Thine a's are crooked, and thy k's stand not upright.

(They work.) Enter Angilbert.

Abbot. Why, how now? A most hearty greeting, Angilbert. Art from the Emperor?

Angilbert. Fulk and I are the missi for this district. We bear the new capitularies, and a letter for thee besides. Fulk lodgeth in the town to-night, but I came straight to thee.

Abbot. And thou didst well. Shalt rest and sup, and then read us the new laws, that we may write them down and send them to the officials hereabout. Prepare new scrolls for this, my children. Have them ready. And what saith Charles to me? (Takes letter and opens it. He reads, "We hold our general assembly this year in the eastern part of Saxony, on the River Bode, at the place which is known as Strassfurt. Come so prepared with your men that you may be able to go thence well equipped in any direction, that is with arms and accoutrements, and provisions for war in the way of food and clothing. In your carts shall be implements of various kinds, axes, planes, augers, boards, spades, iron shovels, and other utensils necessary in an army. Bring supplies of food for three months.") That means the Saxons are out again. A pestiferous race! What peace hath a man for study in these days? (Shakes his head discontentedly.)

Theodore advances with his pages.

Abbot. What, Theodore, hast thou finished thy pages, then?

Theodore. They are illuminated as perfectly as I may. I have not spared gold nor color.

Abbot. Why, it is wondrous well done. It is a treasure, my son. Look, Angilbert. Come, now, we shall finish this book in a new way. In our monastery at York, we no longer roll these pages, but we fold them, thus, and make holes here, and here, and bind them together, and over all we place a cover of a coarser skin, to protect the leaves. S. Columba, in Iona, made them thus, and I have seen his great Book, called the Book of Kells, with a noble design stamped upon the cover.

Angilbert. Charles hath a new book, sent from Canterbury, that hath covers of boards, with skins over them, and so the pages lie smooth, and cannot roll or be wrinkled.

Abbot. Indeed, I like that well. We shall try it. Rabanus. Pardon, father, but I have seen in the shop of Anselm, the smith, certain small pieces of metal, fashioned for hinges. Might we not fasten them to the two sides of the cover for clasps?

Abbot. Good, my son. This also will we try.
Rabanus. May I go and bring some?
Abbot. Aye, bring them here at once.
Enter Barbara.

Abbot. Greetings, daughter. What wouldst thou with us to-day?

Barbara. I bring jewels. They were my mother's. Fulk hath but now brought them to me, and I would make of them some fitting gift for the honor of the Holy Church, before they tempt mine eyes away from duty. What sayest thou? What may I do with them?

Re-enter Rabanus with the clasps.

Abbot. Why I think thou art come in the very nick of time. See, here, and here, upon these clasps, they may be set, to ornament this volume of the Scriptures that one brother hath but now completed. What better use for jewels than a place upon the Book of Books? Anselm can do it. He is skilled in metal work. Shall it be so?

Barbara. I am well pleased. Where are they, Gisela?. Here, take them, father. Abbot. Sing we now the evensong, and then to supper. They sing.

THE PUBLIC AND THE SECONDARY CURRICULUM.

The general public is woefully ignorant of what the presentation of a subject in the secondary school really involves either as to content or method. They may have some knowledge of the former, but they are entirely in the dark as to the latter. A subject like mathematics may connote to them something fairly definite; we are still dealing with realities when we mention Latin, German or physics; but the moment we enter the realm of the cultural we are lost to view in a veritable mystery of mysteries.

The competition for recognition among the various secondary school subjects is so keen, the tendencies of the age are so utilitarian or materialistic that a definite campaign must be waged to justify the time and attention given to those subjects which have always been conceived as largely cultural in character. It behooves the earnest teacher of the social sciences, wherever and whenever the occasion arises to enlighten the public whom he serves on the tremendous changes which these subjects have undergone in the past quarter century, and to set forth clearly the aims sought in their presentation and the methods by which those aims are realized.

It is not so much a question of explaining the content of the course of study as of describing the methods pursued in the given subject. Did the public but realize the real value which might accrue to a boy or girl were he to pursue these subjects for from one to four years, they would lend the teacher that sympathy and co-operation so much needed to make the work most effective. The pressure upon principals and boards of education from the tax-paying public is so strong, and the age is so critical that each subject must somehow or other "make good," if it is to remain in the curriculum. The cry for efficiency is heard on every hand. It is doubtful whether any satisfactory efficiency test can be applied to the results of our history teaching. There are other ways, however, which may be just as effective for justifying the time and energy spent upon the social studies, and one of these is the evolution of a satisfactory method of performing the work in hand. The average parent has not kept pace with the great changes accompanying the presentation of the social sciences, and every opportunity should be welcomed which enables the administrative or teaching staff of the public school to inform him.

THE PLAN OF THE NEWARK SCHOOL EXHIBIT. Such an opportunity presented itself in the city of Newark in connection with the celebration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of the city. One of the features of the celebration was an exhibit of the work of the public schools held in the South Side

High School from July 5 to August 5. Over fifty rooms in the building were given up to the various subjects represented in the Newark course of study, about a third of the space being devoted to the work of the high schools.

The authorities in charge of the undertaking were so thoroughly in sympathy with the idea already expressed of enlightening the public as to what the schools were actually trying to accomplish that they selected this as the primary object of the entire exhibit. Thus we presented to the entire teaching force a unique opportunity that of making each subject intelligible to the public. This opportunity was especially welcomed by the teachers of the social sciences, and they sought in the secondary school exhibit particularly to make it not only definite in character, but self-explanatory.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION.

One room was assigned for the purpose-a classroom ordinarily seating forty students. The desks had been removed, and around the three available sides large screens were set up upon which to display the work. Mounts were supplied of a uniform color and size (22" by 28"), to be fastened to these. Four tables were arranged in the middle of the room and one under each set of windows. This left space on that side for a large show case. The following plan illustrates the general arrangement of the room and the amount of space devoted to each field of history: