can we accept every statement made and every opinion expressed by Frederic Harrison, though he has written in one of his essays, the second in his "Meaning of History," a most eloquent tribute of the Medieval Church. Hence we are not surprised to find in Harrison such an amalgam of blame and praise as is conveyed by the following exhortation: Let us think of it, the Medieval Church," he says, as it was at its best; and in this, forget even the cruelty, the imposture, and the degradation of its fall; let horror for its vices and pity for its errors be lost in one sentiment of admiration, gratitude and honor, for this the best and the last of all the organized systems of human society; of all the institutions of mankind, the most worthy of remembrance and regret." In this sentence we have a hint of the need of thoroughly equipped Catholic teachers of history. The Church must act through human instruments, and these, it must be confessed, have sometimes been lamentably weak. There is nothing to be gained by blinding this fact, as Pope Leo XIII so emphatically pointed out in his letter of August 17, 1883, on historical studies. Adopting Cicero's dictum, “Never fear to tell the truth, never dare to tell a lie," he, by implication, censured those Catholic historians who have ignored or tried to extenuate unpleasant facts, who, had they lived in the time of Christ, would have told us nothing of the denial of St. Peter, or Judas' betrayal of his Master. It is our duty to admit that, and to explain why, the Church has occasionally been afflicted by the conduct of her faithful servants. Generally, as in the tenth and the eleventh centuries, these were thrust upon her by purely worldly and selfish political interests, a condition which the teacher should always be prepared to explain. He should also be able to explain how the transfer of the Papal residence to Avignon helped to disaffect opinion in Germany, and thus prepare the way for both the Great Schism of the West, and the struggle between the Popes and the Councils of the fifteenth century, a struggle which ultimately developed into the ligious revolt of the sixteenth century. As a contributory cause of that calamitous upheaval, he must admit the weakness of the Pontiffs of that period of seventy years, and their servility in betraying the best interests of their high and most sacred trust. He must also be able to show that the so-called Reformation was more of a political than of a religious movement, that, in fact, the latter was doomed to failure, without the former. In support of this thesis, he can cite many of the prominent non-Catholic historians, among them, the contributors to the early volumes of the Cambridge Modern History, and many more within easy reach. Their tone may be summed up in this declaration of a writer unfriendly to the Catholic Church, the late Henry Charles Lea. The motives, both remote and proximate, which led to the Lutheran revolt, were largely secular rather than spiritual." Lea also points out that "together with the progress of the Reformation, a phase of absolute monarchy had developed itself, through which European nations passed, and the enforcement of the regalia put an end to a large part of the grievances which had caused the .. re Church of the fifteenth century to be fiercely hated. Whether or not the population were benefited by the change of masters, the Church was no longer responsible; for in the loss of her authority and in the final secularization of her temporalities she has found recompense tenfold in the renewed vigor of her spiritual vitality." But the struggles of the Popes to maintain that vitality and the liberty essential to it have not always been fully appreciated and correctly represented by non-Catholic historians. Ignorance of religion," the late Lord Acton says of such writers, "has been a great calamity, but not a greater calamity than ignorance of the true nature of liberty. The Church has more to fear from political errors than from religious hatred. In a state really free, passion is impotent against her. In a state without freedom, she is almost as much in danger from her friends as from her enemies. A clergy dependent for its support on the people is emancipated from the influence of the State, and directly subject to the authority of the Holy See. The Church is affected not by the form of government, but by its principle. She is interested not in monarchy and republicanism, but in liberty and security against absolutism. The rights and duties which she upholds are sacred and inviolable, and can no more be subject to the vote of the majority than to the decree of a despot." "The basis of all human order is," says Pascal, "the multitude, which if not reduced to unity is confusion; the unity which depends not on the multitude is tyranny." .. Let the teacher, then, dwell on the lives of those glorious Popes of the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries who contended against the Franconian and Suabian Emperors-tyrants who would, if they could, as Freeman well says, have completely subjected the Church to the State, who would have adopted that "invariable law of the East, which makes nationality and religion the same thing," a law that in the sixteenth century became a basic principle of Protestantism; but at the same time the teacher should, when discussing the great dispute concerning investures, be careful to point out the mischief that was wrought by the German bishops, who were also temporal princes." Then especially, again to quote Freeman, "the tyrants of the people were the slaves of the king." These prince-bishops, by refusing to surrender their estates in accordance with a provision of the Concordat of Worms (1122), bequeathed to remote posterity a legacy fraught with direct mischief, seeing that it became a most potent aid to the leaders of the Protestant movement. Many other instances of leading topics might be dwelt upon; especially the glories of that wondrous period to which Frederic Harrison has devoted one of his most fascinating chapters in his volume entitled, The Meaning of History," a chapter that may have suggested to Doctor Walsh the title of his best known book, "The Thirteenth, the Greatest of Centuries." At any rate, the lesson to be learnt from both authors is that, "Of all the subjects of study, it is history which stands most sorely in need of a methodical plan of reading." History in North Central High Schools BY LEONARD V. KOOS, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON. This article deals with the teaching of history in the high school. It is concerned with the extent and nature of the offering in history, the years of appearance of the several courses and the reasons given for these years of appearance, the time devoted to each course, the organization of the courses, the larger and more significant aspects of method, and the aims kept prominent by the teachers of the subject. It presents the results of an investigation by questionnaire into the status of the teaching of history in the secondary schools of the north central States. * Indiana Iowa Kansas Minnesota Missouri Montana Nebraska North Dakota The questionnaires were sent to about 300 teachers of history in the high schools on the approved list of the North Central Association of Colleges and Sec- Michigan ondary Schools. These teachers had been previously designated by their principals as being "constructively interested in the development of effective courses of study and willing to co-operate" in the investigation. Because of the method of the selection of the teachers to whom copies of the questionnaire were sent, we can with some degree of assurance say that we have in the facts here assmbled a composite photograph not merely of the status of history teaching in north central States, but of the status of the better history teaching in these schools. A total of 244 responses were received from teachers of history in 163 different schools. Table I is here reproduced to show the distribution by subjects and States of these responses. It will be seen that 71, 52, 17 and 104 responses, respectively, were received to the questionnaires in ancient, medieval and modern, English, and American history, and that we have a fair representation of States in the material used in the study. I. THE OFFERING IN HISTORY. All but one of the 163 different schools from which the responses to the inquiry have come have complied with the request to set down their history sequences. These offerings in history, exclusive of the courses in civics and economics, extend through from one to four courses, as follows: 1 school offers a single course. 9 schools offer 2 courses. 98 schools offer 3 courses. 54 schools offer 4 courses. The 1 school offering but a single course reports it Total 71 * With these have been included 6 reports on modern his tory. YEARS OF APPEARANCE OF THE COURSES. The years of appearance of the courses in history as indicated in the responses are presented in Table II. The facts in brief are these: Ancient history appears almost an equal number of times in first and second years, with only a few listing it for third year; medieval and modern history appears with almost equal frequency in second and in third year, a very few listing it for fourth; English history is predominantly a third-year subject, with a sprinkling in other years; American history is almost always reported in fourth year, although a few schools list it for third and one school for first. The teachers were asked to state what aspects of the various subjects as they are taught recommend them for the years in which they are reported. The answer most commonly given for the place of ancient history TABLE II.- YEARS OF APPEARANCE OF THE SEVERAL COURSES Year or Years in 1 2 1-2 3 2-3 4 3-4 2-3-4 Ancient Medieval English Ameri Total Number of Responses to can and Modern is its position in the chronological sequence in the historical field; many teachers seem to believe that the study of history must be begun at the beginning of recorded history. A number of teachers speak of ancient history as being easier of comprehension than subsequent courses: The easiest of all history courses," "the relative simplicity of government and other institutions prior to Rome," "the story element in Oriental history and the biographical character of Greek and Roman history." Others say it is recommended for this place by its foundational relation to other subjects in the high school program of study-e.g., Latin, art, and English. Eight teachers recommend it for second year because it is "too difficult for freshnren." Other answers are less significant. Medieval and modern history, also, is recommended by many teachers for the years in which it commonly appears because of its place in chronological sequence: Medieval and modern should follow ancient history," medieval and modern should come between ancient and American," medieval and modern should be given in the second year as preparation for later history." Several teachers speak of the advantages it offers for correlation with the English literature that usually appears in these years. Eight teachers listing it as a third-year subject, mention the maturity desirable for its adequate comprehension. Other answers are less significant and less frequent. English history is recommended by the teachers for its usual place in third year because of its position in chronological sequence. Frequent answers are: It should follow medieval and precede American history," and "It should precede American history." Correlation with English literature is also given as a reason for its place here. Ancient history 17 weeks, 1 school. Medieval and modern history 18 weeks, 2 schools. English history 18 weeks, 3 schools. It is probable that teachers reporting 17, 33 and 34 weeks have subtracted time set apart for semester or other examinations. Nineteen of the 104 schools from which responses on American history were received report courses a half-year of 18 to 20 weeks in length, 79 report a full year of 36 or more weeks, and 1 school each reports 24, 25, 26, 28 and 33 weeks. This marked diversity of practice will be partially explained later under the head of "Organization of the Couse in American History." It may be said in passing that it is more seeming than real, and grows out of variation between two extremes of practice, one of presenting American history and government as separate courses and the other of presenting them as coherent constituents of a single course. Periods per Week. The number of periods per week devoted to courses in history is almost always 5. The exceptions are: In ancient history, 3 schools report 4 periods and 1 reports 7 periods; in medieval and modern history, 1 school reports 4 periods; in English history, 1 reports 4 periods; and in American history, 2 report 4 periods, and 1 reports 7. Length of Periods. The length of periods for classes in history are shown in Table III. Almost no schools provide periods less than 40 minutes in length, while all but a small proportion of schools provide TABLE III.-NUMBER OF SCHOOLS REPORTING THE SEVERAL LENGTHS OF CLASS PERIODS FOR COURSES American history, also, is very commonly recommended for its place in fourth year by its position in chronological sequence: "It should follow medieval and modern and English history," culmination of all previous history," etc. However, another very common recommendation appears among the answers -the need of civic training for the student soon to be graduated. Other answers refer to the maturity needed for its proper comprehension, the desirability of separating it from the American history of the elementary school, its required place in high school normal training courses (Kansas), and the opportunity 40 offered of correlating it with American literature ap- 41 pearing in this year. One cannot refrain from calling special attention to a fact that every reader has probably noted in these reasons for the years of appearance of the several courses-i.e., how firmly intrenched the tradition of the necessity of chronological sequence is in the thinking of these teachers of history. TIME ELEMENT. Weeks in the Courses. With 8, 3 and 4 exceptions, respectively, courses in ancient, medieval and modern, and English history are a full year of not less than 36 weeks in length. The exceptions are: 35 37 42 ! 43 45 50 55 60 65 periods from 40 to 45 minutes in length. It is deserving of note that at least 4 schools provide time for supervised study, 3 of them during a 30-minute and the fourth during a 40-minute period. II. ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE IN AMERICAN Indirect testimony as to the organization of courses in ancient, medieval and modern, and English history is given below in the material on the method of the use of the texts; the text-books are seen to dominate the courses, and, therefore, largely determine the organization. The only course in history concerning whose organization and content a direct question was put was American. The question read: "If American history is taught as a part of a course in American history and government, what fractional part of the course is devoted to each?" Twenty-eight of the 104 teachers report definitely that they do not make government a part of the course in American history. Of these 28, 19 are those specified above under Weeks in the Courses," as reporting a half-year course in the subject. In all but 2 of these 19 cases, the half-year course in American history is followed by a separate half-year in government or civics. The remaining 9 of this group of 28 may be understood to exclude special and distinct recognition of work in government from their courses in American history. proximating the latter extreme follow either the prac- III. METHODS. HOW TEXT-BOOKS ARE USED. The method of use of the text-book is a matter of great importance in the teaching of history. This investigation aimed at finding current practices in this regard. Four modes of using the text-book were listed in the questionnaire, and the teachers were asked to signify which of these modes they are following. These modes were listed in the order of decreasing dependence upon the text, and were as follows: (1) "As the main body of the course with little or no collateral reading." (2) "As the basis of assignments to be supplemented by required collateral readings." (3) "As an outline or syllabus in connection with collateral readings," and (4) "On the same basis as other readings of the course." The facts appearing in compilation of the responses are set forth in Table V, which shows the numbers of teachers reporting each of the uses listed. In order bet- TABLE V.-NUMBERS OF TEACHERS OF HISTORY FOLLOWING Government 2/5 to 1/2 1/4 to 1/3 1/6 to 1/5 Thirty-one of the 36 whose answers are tabulated as devoting 1/2 to 3/5 of the total time to history, or 43 per cent. of the 72 schools here concerned, divide the time equally between history and government, whereas all the remaining 41 schools devote from somewhat more than 1/2 to 5/6 of the total time to history, and 1/6 to somewhat less than 1/2 the time to government. The facts appearing here may be summarized as follows: Courses in American history range between two extremes of practice, one typified by such schools as constitute them in no special part of government, and the other by those that divide the time equally between history asd government. The schools ap they have been computed in percentages and reproduced in Table VI. On account of the relatively small number of responses to the inquiry in English history, too much importance should not be attributed to the figures for that subject. Mode (2) is most commonly used in all courses. It appears, however, that there is a somewhat greater tendency to follow mode (1) in ancient history than in subsequent courses. Corresponding to this is the less apparent tendency to follow mode (2) in medieval and modern 2 Two of the 104 teachers did not answer this question, and in American history. The percentages using modes (3) and (4) in all courses are notably small. and the answers of two others were indefinite. In general it may be said that, although there is a tendency in the later courses to place less dependence on the text-book, this tendency is not as marked as one would be led to expect in view of the greater maturity of the student. The covers of a text-book far too frequently, and to too large an extent, fix the limits of our high-school courses in history. COLLATERAL READING. Amount of Collateral Reading. In order to make the amounts of collateral reading as reported by the teachers readily comparable, they were reduced to the uniform basis of the number of pages per semester. The resulting computations are not reproduced here, but it may be said that the approximate number of pages ranges from none" to 3,500 in ancient history, from none to 900 in medieval and modern, from 50 to 900 in English, and from 25 to 1,500 in American. The median amounts are as follows: Ancient History-250 pages per semester. Medieval and Modern History-250 pages per Kinds of Collateral Reading. The following kinds of collateral reading were listed in the inquiry in history, the teachers being directed to indicate by checking those they require of their students: Other texts, more extended works, source material, biography, historical fiction, poetry, magazines, and newspapers. The percentages of teachers reporting use of these various kinds of reading supplementary to the text are presented in the accompanying table (VII). The most common kinds of collateral reading are the other texts, more extended works, source material, biography, and periodicals. While the proportion of the teachers reporting the use of the other texts is smaller, the proportion of those reporting the use of more extended works and source material is larger for the later than for the earlier courses. Biography also tends to become a somewhat more common constituent of later courses. The representation of historical fiction is fairly uniform throughout, although slightly more common in American history than in other courses. Poetry is a prominent constituent of the collateral reading in none of the courses. Magazines and newspapers seem to receive more attention in medieval and modern and in American history than in the two other courses, probably because of the availability of contemporaneous material in periodicals for the more modern aspects of these courses. Modes of Testing Collateral Reading. A number of methods of testing collateral reading were listed in the questionnaire, and the teachers asked to signify, by checking, those of which they make use. They are set down here in the order of their frequency of use, followed in each case by the number of times they were checked: Oral reports in class, 218; discussions in class, 169; notebooks, 140; written reports, 113; quiz in class, 106; written examinations or tests, 103; outlines or digests handed in, 95; themes, 71. CORRELATION. The following subjects of study were listed in the questionnaire, and the teachers asked to indicate with which of them they make consistent efforts to correlate the work in history: English composition, English literature, geography, civics, political economy, Latin, current events, sciences, art and architecture, drawing, spelling, and penmanship. The results of the computations of the percentages of the teachers of the various history courses who make such efforts to correlate their work with the subjects named appear in Table VIII. TABLE VIII. PERCENTAGES OF TEACHERS WHO REPORT EFFORTS TO CORRELATE HISTORY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS. |